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THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



Tarr and McMurry's Geographies 

are made up in two Series, which for convenience 
have been designated The Three Book Series and 
The Five Book Series. 



The Three Book Series 

First Book - - Home Geography 

Second Book - - North America 

Third Book - - Europe and Other Continents 



The Five Book Series 

First Part - - Home Geography 
Second Part - The Earth as a Whole 
Third Part - - North America 
Fourth Part - - Europe, South America, etc. 
Fifth Part - - Asia and Africa, with Review 
of North America 



When ordering, be careful to specify the Book or part 
and the Series desired. 



TARR AND McMURRY GEOGRAPHIES 

SECOND PART 

THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

BY 

RALPH S. TARR, B.S., F.G.S.A. 

PROFESSOR OF DYNAMIC GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 
AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY 

AND 

FRANK M. McMURRY, Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR OF THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING AT TEACHERS 
COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 



WITH MANY COLORED MAPS AND NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS 
CHIEFLY PHOTOGRAPHS OF ACTUAL SCENES 



New York City Edition 
Enlarged to Cover Grades IB, 5 A, and 5 B 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

1908 

All rights reserved 




CLASS A- XXc.No,) 
' COPY B. 



1> 



Copyeight, 1900, 1908, 
By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



New York City Edition. Published February, 1908. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 
PAET II. THE EAKTH AS A WHOLE. 

PAGE 

Section I. Form and Size of the Earth Ill 

Its Form, 111. Size op the Earth, 113. 
Section II. Daily Motion of the Earth and its Results . 115 
The Axis and Poles, 115. The Equator, 116. Gravity, 
116. Sunrise and Sunset, 117. Day and Night, 117. 

Section III. The Zones 120 

Boundaries of the Zones, 120. Torrid Zone, 121. Tem- 
perate Zones, 121. Frigid Zones, 122. Hemispheres, 123. 
Section IV. Heat within the Earth and its Effects . . 124 
Heat in Mines, 124. Melted Rock, 125. The Earth's 
Crust, 125. Cause of Mountains, 125. Cause of Conti- 
nents and Ocean Basins, 126. Change in the Level of 
the Land, 126. 

Section V. The Continents and Oceans 128 

Land and Water, 128. The Continents, 129. North Amer- 
ica, 129. South America, 129. Eurasia, 130. Africa, 

133. Australia, 133. The Oceans, 134. The Arctic 
and Antarctic, 134. The Atlantic, 134. The Pacific, 

134. The Indian, 134. The Ocean Bottom, 134. Moun- 
tains in the Oceans, 135. Coral Islands, 136. 

Section VI. Maps 137 

Section VII. North America 139 

Phtsical Geography, 139. Political Divisions, 140. 

Section VIII. The United States 141 

Section IX. New England 142 

Names, 142. Seaports, 142. Fishing, 143. Farming, 143. 
Quarrying, 144. Lumbering, 144. Manufacturing, 146. 
Commerce, 147. 

V 



vi TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Section X. Middle Atlantic States 149 

The Coast Line, 149. The Seaports, 149. Reasons for the 
Great Size of New York City, 149. Cities Near by, 149. 
Water Route to the Interior, 150. Lumbering, 151. 
Farming, 151. Salt, 152. Manufacturing, 152. Com= 
merce, 153. Reasons why Philadelphia has become a 
Great City, 153. Cities Near by, 153. Farming, 153. 
Iron, 154. Coal, 154. Oil and Gas, 155. Commerce, 156. 
Other Cities, 156. Baltimore, 156. Washington, 156. 
Virginia and West Virginia, 157. 

Section XL Southern States 159 

Relief, 159. Coal and Iron, 160. Cotton, 160. Ranch- 
ing, 161. Sugar and Rice, 162. Fruits, 162. Lumber- 
ing, 162. Manufacturing, 163. New Orleans, 163. 
Other Seaports, 165. Oklahoma and Indian Territory, 
165. Climate, 166. 

Section XII. Central States 167 

Raw Products, 167. The Manufacturing and Trade Cen- 
tres, 170. Review and Comparisons, 175. 

Section XIII. Western States 176 

Reasons why there are so Few People, 176. Wonderful 
Scenery, 178. Mining, 179. Ranching, 181. The Desert, 
182. Irrigation, 182. Fruit Raising, 183. Industries 
along the pacific coast, 184. the clties of the pacific 
Coast, 185. 

Section XIV. Alaska 188 

Section XV. Canada and Other Countries North of the 

United States . . . 190 

Canada and Newfoundland, 190. Industries, 190. Cities, 
192. The Far North, 192. Islands North of North 
America, 193. 
Section XVI. Countries South of the United States . . 195 
Mexico and Central America, 195. The West Indies and 
Bermuda, 197. 

Section XVII. South America 199 

Relief, 199. Climate, 200. History, 200. Brazil, 201. 
Venezuela and Guiana, 202. La Plata Countries, 203. 
Andean Countries, 204. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS vii 

PAGE 

Section XVIII. Europe 207 

The British Isles, 207. Norse Countries, 211. Russia, 
212. Germany, 214. Holland, 216. Belgium, 217. 
France, 217. Spain and Portugal, 219. Italy, 220. 
Switzerland, 222. Austria-Hungary, 223. Greece, 224. 
Turkey, 225. 

Section XIX. Asia 230 

Physical Geography, 230. Southwestern Asia, 231. Sibe- 
ria, 234. The Chinese Empire and Korea, 235. Japan, 
237. India and Indo-China, 238. 

Section XX. Africa 242 

The Dark Continent, 242. Northern Africa, 243. Cen- 
tral Africa, 246. South Africa, 246. 
Section XXI. Australia, the East Indies, Philippines, and 

Other Islands of the Pacific ...... 249 

Australia, 249. The East Indies, 252. The Philippine 
Islands, 253. Islands of the Pacific, 254. 

Books of Reference ......... 256 

Supplement ........... 262 

Climate, Plants, Animals 262 

Latitude and Longitude ....... 277 

The Human Race 284 

Appendix — Tables of Area, Population, etc 290 



LIST OF MAPS 



FIGURE FACING PAGE 

119. The Hemispheres 137 

120. Mercator Map of the World 137 

121. Relief Map of North America .... On page 138 

123. North America 140 

124. United States 141 

125. New England 142 

132. Middle Atlantic States 149 

140. Southern States 159 

148. Central States 167 

157. Western States 176 

177. South America 199 

183. Europe 207 

203. Asia 230 

214. Africa ... 242 

221. Australia, East Indies, Philippine Islands, and Islands 

of the Pacific 249 

ix 



Part II 
THE EAETH AS A WHOLE 

I. FORM AXD SIZE OF THE EARTH 1 

Its Form. — Hundreds of years ago, before America 
was discovered, men thought the earth was flat. They 
travelled so little that they had no idea of its form or of 
its size. 

A few men who had studied the matter believed that 
the earth was a round ball, and that if one travelled 
straight on in any direction, he would in time return to 
the place from which he started. You can understand 
this by pushing your finger around on the outside of an 
orange, until it comes back to the starting-point. 

Christopher Columbus believed this, and went to Spain, hoping to 
obtain money to secure ships for a long voyage to prove it. 

Men were at that time in the habit of going to a land called India, 
for spices, silks, and jewels. To reach India from Spain they travelled 
thousands of miles eastward; but Columbus said that if the earth 
were round, like a ball, India might be reached by going westward 
across the ocean, and the distance would be much less. He therefore 
asked the king of Spain for ships and men to make such a journey. 

The king refused the request, because the idea seemed ridiculous ; 
but the queen came to his aid, and, at last, on August 3, 1492, he 

1 The use of a globe in this study is very important. Small globes 
may be obtained from dealers in school supplies at a very slight cost. 

Ill 



112 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



sailed westward on a voyage from which many thought he would 
never return ; but, after a journey of several weeks, laud was reached 
on October 12th. 

Thinking he had reached India, he called the natives Indians; but 
instead of that he had discovered Cuba and other islands near the 
coast of North America ; a continent and large ocean still lay between 
him and India. These newly discovered lands became known as the 
New World, to distinguish them from the Old World, where all white 
men then lived. 




Fig. 92. 

Columbus landing in America and taking possession of it in the name of the 

king of Spain. 



After Columbus returned in safety, other men dared to 
explore the New World. One of them, named Magellan, 
started to sail round the earth ; and though he was killed 
when he had reached the Philippine Islands, his ships 
went on and completed the journey. Since then many 
people have made the voyage in various directions, and 
the earth has been studied so carefully that every one 
now knows it is round. 

The great, round earth is also called the globe or sphere. 



FORM AND SIZE OF THE EARTH 



113 



The reason that it does not seem round to us, is that we 
see so little of it at a time. 

If you see very little of an orange, it will not look round either. 
To prove this, place upon an orange a piece of paper with a small hole 
in it, so that none of the surface is seen 
excepting that which shows through 
the hole. This part does not appear 
round, but flat. 

If we could get far enough 

away from the earth to see a 

large part of it at once, as we 

are when looking at an orange, 

or at the moon, we would easily 

be able to observe its roundness 

(Fig. 93). 
Size of the Earth. — Our 

sphere is so large that even the 

highest mountains, when compared to the whole earth, 
are no larger than a speck of dust 
when compared to an apple. Lofty 
mountains are rarely more than three 
or four miles high ; but the diameter 
of the earth, or the distance from one 
side to the other, through the centre 
of the earth, is nearly eight thousand 
miles. 




SOUTH POLE 



Fig. 93. 
The sphere. 




Fig. 94. 

Figure of the earth 
cut in two, to show 
the diameter, the 
line passing through 
the centre (c). 
i 



The circumference of the earth, or the dis- 
tance around the outside of it, is about twenty- 
five thousand miles. This is a little more than 
three times the diameter, and you will find 
that the circumference of any sphere is always 
a little more than three times its diameter. 
Prove this with an orange. 



114 THE EABTH AS A WHOLE 

Review Questions. — (1) What did people formerly know about 
the shape of the earth? (2) What is its form? (3) Tell the story 
of Columbus. (4) Why did he call the savages Indians ? (5) Why 
was the land he discovered called the New World? (6) Tell about 
Magellan's voyage. (7) Explain why the earth does not appear to 
us to be a sphere. (8) What is the diameter of the earth ? The cir- 
cumference? (9) The latter is how many times the former? 

Suggestions. — (1) Read something about the life of Columbus. 
(2) Read about Magellan. (3) Find the names of some other early 
explorers and read about them. (4) Trace Columbus's journey on a 
globe to see where he actually went. Find India in order to see 
where he thought he had gone, and notice how one can go to India 
by travelling eastward as well as westward. (5) Make a sphere in 
clay. Measure its diameter with a needle. (6) How many proofs 
can you find that the earth is round? Find out how we know that 
it is like a ball and not like a cylinder. (7) Write a story about 
Columbus. (8) Trace on a globe the route followed by our soldiers 
who went to the Philippines; of Admiral Dewey when he returned 
by way of the Mediterranean. How many days are required for such 
a journey ? (9) Obtain a telescope or an opera glass and look through 
it at the moon. 

For References, see page 257. 



II. DAILY MOTION OF THE EARTH, AND ITS 
RESULTS 

The Axis and Poles. — The earth seems to us to be 
motionless, while the sun appears to move round it each 
day, rising in the east and setting in 
the west. But in reality neither of 
these things happens. 

Instead of being without motion, 
the earth is turning round at a uni- 
form rate of speed. You have per- 
haps watched a wheel spin about 
on a rod or pin, and have noticed 
that the outside goes rapidly, while 
the part near the pin moves much 
more slowly. It is the same with 
the earth; and just as we speak of 
the wheel turning upon a pin, so we 
speak of the earth turning upon its 
axis. 

But the axis of a wheel is something real, while the axis 
of the earth is merely a line that we think of as reaching 
through the earth's centre and extending to the surface 
in both directions. 

The two ends of this axis are called the poles of the earth, 
one end being the north pole, the other the south pole. 

Allowing an apple to represent the earth, a knitting needle or a 
stick pushed through its centre would represent its axis, and the two 

" > N S 115 

1 




Fig. 95. 

A drawing of the earth 
cut through to show 
the axis and poles. 



116 



TEE EABTH AS A WHOLE 



North Pole 



ends on the surface, the two poles. You can then spin the apple, very 
much as the earth spins (Fig. 97). 

If you were to go directly north from the place where you live, you 
would in time come to the north pole ; or, if far enough south, to the 
south pole. Many men have tried to cross the icy seas (Fig. 100) that 
surround the north pole. If one ever reaches that point, he will not 
find a pole ; but the north star, toward which the axis points, will be 
almost directly overhead. 

The Equator. — Midway between these poles, we think 
of another line drawn around the earth on the outside. 

This is called the equator, be- 
cause all parts of it are equally 
distant from each of the poles. 
On page 113 the distance 
around the earth was given ; 
what, then, is the length of 
the equator? 

As the earth spins on its axis, all 
points on the surface must go with 
it, as every part of the skin of an 
apple turns with it. Since the earth 
makes one complete turn each day, 
a man at the equator travels twenty- 
five thousand miles every twenty-four 
hours. What a whirling motion that 
is ! It is at the rate of over one thousand miles an hour, while the 
fastest trains run little more than sixty miles an hour. 

Why do not places considerably north or south of the equator move 
as rapidly as those at the equator? 




Fig. 96. 

drawing of that half of the 
sphere containing the New 
World, — to show the position 
of the poles and the equator. 



Gravity. — What, then, is to hinder our flying away 
from the earth, just as, when a stone is whirled about on 
a string, it flies away the moment the string breaks ? And 
why is not all the water hurled from the ocean? 



DAILY MOTION OF THE EARTH 117 

The reason is that the earth draws everything toward 
it. If you push a book from your desk, it falls to the 
floor; and when you spring into the air, you quickly 
return to the ground. All objects are drawn downward, 
because the earth is pulling upon them. It attracts them 
much as a horseshoe magnet attracts pieces of iron. 

The force with which the earth draws all objects toward 
it is called gravity ; and it is because of gravity that the 
water, trees, houses, and we ourselves, do not fly off when 
the earth is turning at such a tremendous speed. 

Sunrise and Sunset. — The sun seems to rise in the east 
and set in the west. This could not be the case if the 
earth did not turn or rotate toward the east ; for all 
heavenly bodies must first appear in the direction toward 
which the earth turns. This eastward rotation of the 
earth, therefore, explains why the sun seems to rise and 
set as it does. 

Hundreds of years ago people thought that the sun actually rose, 
and, after moving across the heavens^ set in the west. We still use 
the words " sunrise " and " sunset " which they used, although we 
know that the sun appears to rise only because the earth rotates. 

Day and Night. — It is this rotation that causes day 
and night. A lamp can light only one-half of a ball at 
a time, as you know. So the sun can light only half of 
the great earth ball at one time. This being the case, if 
our globe stood perfectly still, there would always be day 
on the half next to the sun, and night on the other half. 

But since the earth rotates, the place where it is day 
is constantly changing ; and while the sun is setting for 
people far to the east of us, it is rising for those far to 
the west. When it is noon where you live, it is midnight 
on the other side of the earth. Thus each place has its 



118 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

period of daylight and darkness ; and as the earth makes 
one complete rotation every twenty-four hours, the day 
and night together must last just that length of time. 




Fig. 97. 

An apple lighted by a candle on one side, to illustrate the cause of day 

and night. 

Review Questions. — (1) What motion has the earth ? (2) What 
Is the axis of the earth? (3) The north pole? The south pole? 
(4) Represent the axis and poles by using an apple. (5) Walk toward 
the north pole. Toward the south pole. (6) What is the equator? 
(7) How long does it require for the earth to turn completely around 
once ? (8) What rate of travel is that, for a point upon the equator ? 
(9) Why are we not thrown away from the earth? (10) Give sev- 
eral examples showing what is meant by gravity. (11) In what 
direction is the earth rotating? (12) How does that explain sunrise 
and sunset? (13) What causes night? (14) What would be the 
result if the earth did not rotate ? (15) When it is noon here, what 
time is it on the other side of the earth? (16) How long must the 
day and night together last ? Why ? 



DAILY MOTION OF THE EARTH 119 

Suggestions. — (1) Point out the axis of a wheel ; of a top ; of a 
rotating ball; of a spinning globe. (2) Mark the two poles on an 
apple or ball, and then draw a line for the equator. (3) Mould a 
sphere in clay, and show the poles and the equator. Cut it in half, 
and mark a line for the axis. (4) Find exactly >>ow many miles a 
point on the equator moves each hour. (5) Use a horseshoe magnet 
to attract pieces of iron. (6) Use a globe, or apple, and a lamp to show 
why the sun appears to rise and set, and why it is day on one side 
while it is night on the other. (7) Watch the stars in the east some 
night, to see which way they appear to* move. (8) Why do not the 
clouds appear to move westward also ? (9) Is the sun always shin- 
ing during the day? Why, then, do we not always see it? (10) Who 
was Atlas? Who was Aurora? (11) Find out what the ancients 
supposed became of the sun each night. (12) When it is noon here, 
what time is it one-fourth of the distance around the earth to the 
east? To the west? 

For References, see page 258. 



III. THE ZONES 




Boundaries of the Zones. — The sun's rays feel warmer 
at noon than in the early evening because the sun is more 

nearly overhead at noon, and 
the rays then reach us nearly 
vertically. 

For the same reason the sun 
seems hotter in summer than in 
winter, and in some parts of 
the earth than in others. 

The hottest part of the earth 
is near the equator, for in that 
region the sun at midday is 
directly over the heads of the 
people. That is the case, for a 
part of the year, as far north as 
the line on the map (Fig. 98) 
marked tropic of Cancer, and as 
far south as the one marked 
tropic of Capricorn. Point to them on Figs. 119 and 120. 
These lines are more than three thousand miles apart, 
_a distance greater than that across the United States from 
Boston to San Francisco ; and over that vast area the 
heat is intense, or torrid. Those who live there wear only 
the very lightest clothing, and the savages have almost 
none (Fig. 99). 

But further north and south the heat becomes less and 

120 



Fig. 98. 

A map of the zones. The colors 
suggest sharp differences be- 
tween the zones on the two 
sides of the boundaries ; but 
you should remember that the 
changes are very gradual. 



THE ZONEB 



121 



less intense, because the rays of the sun, even at noon, 
approach the earth at a greater slant. There is a region, 
then, on each side of this broad hot belt, where it is neither 
very hot nor very cold, but temperate. 

Finally, near the poles, the rays are very slanting, as 
they are in our early morning or late afternoon. There 
it is so cold, or frigid, that the ground never thaws out, 
the ice never entirely disappears, and very little vegeta- 
tion can grow. 

Torrid Zone. — Thus one part of the earth has a hot 
climate. There the noonday sun is always so directly 
over the heads of the 
inhabitants that they 
never have winter. 

This hot region ex- 
tends entirely around 
the earth, like a great 
belt, and the equator 
is in the middle of 
it. This is called the 
tropical belt, or the 
tropical or torrid zone, 
and sometimes the 
equatorial belt. Why 
the latter name? 

Temperate Zones. 
— On the north and 
south sides of this 
are the + wo temperate 
zones. People living- 
in the north temperate zone find the sun to the south of 
them at noon, even in summer ; and their shadows always 




Fig. 99. 

Philippine savages hunting ; their home is in 
the torrid zone, and they need almost no 
clothing. 



122 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

fall toward the north. But in the south temperate zone the 
midday sun is always in the north. Which way must the 
shadows fall in that zone ? 

Notice the position of the sun at midday where you live, and also 
the direction and length of your shadow at that time. In which of 
the temperate zones do you live? 




Fig. 100. 

Cape York Eskimos, Greenland, in their summer dress, standing by tlwir 
sleds on the ice-covered sea. 



Frigid Zones. — North of the north temperate zone, and 
south of the south temperate, are the frigid zones, where 
the sun is never high in the heavens, but even at midday 
is near the horizon. There the shadows are very long, as 
they are with us in the late afternoon. In consequence, 
while at the equator there is never any winter, near the 
poles there is never any real summer weather. 

The northern of these zones is called the north frigid 



THE ZONES 123 

zone (Fig. 100) ; the southern, the south frigid zone. They 
are also known as the polar zones, since they surround the 
poles. 

It is so cold that no one has ever been able to reach either of the 
poles. These are surrounded by miles and miles of snow and ice, and 
vessels hundreds of miles away from them are in danger of being 
crushed by ice, or held by it so that they cannot move. 

Hemispheres. — The half of our sphere north of the equator is 
called the northern hemisphere (or half sphere), the southern half, the 
southern hemisphere. The earth is also divided into halves by a circle 
running north and south through both poles, the western half, con- 
taining the New World, being called the viestern hemisphere, and the 
eastern half, containing the Old World, the eastern hemisphere. 

Review Questions. — (1) What is the cause for the great heat in 
the torrid zone? (2) What are its boundaries? (3) What other zones 
are there ? What are their boundaries ? (4) In which direction does 
the midday sun lie in each zone? (5) In which direction do the 
shadows then fall? (6) Why should the heat grow less, the farther 
one travels from the equator ? (7) Why has no one ever been able to 
reach either pole ? (8) Which part of the earth has no cold weather? 
(9) Which part has no hot weather? (10) Point out the zones in 
Figure 98. (11) Represent them in a drawing of your own. 
(12) Name the hemispheres and tell where each is. 

Suggestions. — (1) Find out more about the reason why the sun's 
rays are hotter when the sun is overhead than when it is low in the 
heavens. (2) Write a story telling about the changes in clothing 
you would need to make in passing from the north to the south pole. 
(3) In which direction woulo! you look to see the sun at noon on such 
a journey ? (4) How might the changes in heat affect the growth of 
trees and other plants? (5) How would the direction of your shadow 
change? Its length? (6) If there were no watches or clocks, how 
could you tell the time of day from the sun? (7) Find out about 
some of the men who have tried to reach the north pole. (8) In 
which zone should you prefer to live ? Why ? (9) Explain how some 
places in the temperate zone are warmer than some in the torrid zone. 

For References, see page 258« 



IV. HEAT WITHIN THE EARTH, AND ITS 
EFFECTS 

Heat in Mines. — While much is known about the sur- 
face of the earth, very little is certain about its interior. 
The reason for this is that people cannot go far down 
below the surface in order to see what is there. 




Fig. 101. 

Melted rock, from a volcano in the Hawaiian Islands, flowing over the face 
of a precipice into the water. 

In some places there are mines reaching fully a mile 
below the surface. This may seem a great depth ; but 
when it is remembered that it would be necessary to go four 
thousand times as far to reach the centre, it is plain that 
this is really a short distance. A mile below the surface 
of the earth is not so much as the thickness of the skin of 
an apple, compared with the thickness of the apple itself, 

124 



HEAT WITHIN THE EARTH 



125 



In all of these mines, and in many deep wells, men find 
solid rock, usually covered at the surface with soil ; but 
no one has ever gone beyond this rock. 

It is interesting to note that the farther miners have 
dug down into the earth, the warmer they have found it. 
The thermometer rises about one degree for every fifty or 
sixty feet, and some mines, as they have been deepened, 
have become so hot that men could no longer work in them. 

Melted Rock. — This has led to the belief that, if it were possible 
to go still deeper, the earth would be found to grow hotter and hot- 
ter, until, several miles below the surface, it might be hot enough to 
melt rocks. 

Another fact leading to the same belief is that, in some regions, 
melted rock, called lava, actually flows out of the earth, and then 
cools to form solid rock (Fig. 101). In some places so much lava has 
flowed forth at different times, and collected about the opening called 
the crater, that a mountain 
peak has been built. Such 
peaks are called volcanoes 
(Fig. 102), and some of them 
are many thousand feet high. 

The Earth's Crust — 
From a study of the 
earth it seems certain 
that, although the out- 
side is now cold, it was 
once hot, and that the 
mass within is still hot. 
It may be compared to a biscuit that is still hot inside, al- 
though its crust has become cool. In fact, this cold out- 
side part of the earth is generally called the earth's crust. 

Cause of Mountains. — It was stated on page 19 that 
some parts of the earth have been raised to form mountain 




Fig. 102. 

Vesuvius, in Italy, sending out lava, ashes, 
and steam during an eruption some 
years ago. 




126 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

ranges, while others have been lowered to form valleys. 
We are now ready to explain how this has happened. 

You have, perhaps, seen a blacksmith put a tire upon a 
wheel. He heats the tire so hot that it expands, and it is 
then easily placed over the wheel. But when the iron 
cools it shrinks, so that the tire then fits the wheel tightly. 
The hot interior of the earth is under- 
going a similar change, since every year 
it is slowly growing cooler, and, there- 
fore, shrinking or contracting. This al- 
lows the cool crust to settle ; but, being 
too large, it wrinkles, or puckers, causing 
the rocks to bend and break, and form- 
ing great mountain ranges and valleys. 

One sees something of the same kind in an 

apple that has become dry and wrinkled (Fig, 

An apple wrinkled iQ$y j t nas dried because some of the water 

roug rying. beneath the tough skin has gone into the air as 

vapor ; thus the inside has been made smaller. The skin of the apple, 

like the crust of the earth, has then settled down and become wrinkled. 

Cause of Continents and Ocean Basins. — The mountains 
and valleys are not the largest wrinkles on the earth's 
surface. As the crust has settled, some portions have 
been lowered several miles further than others, and in 
these great depressions the waters have collected, forming 
the oceans, which in places are four or five miles deep. 

Those great portions of the earth's crust which rise above 
the ocean are called continents; and the highest mountain 
peak upon them is fully eleven miles above the deepest 
part of the ocean. 

Change in the Level of the Land. — The contracting of the earth 
has caused many changes, and is still causing them. Some parts of 



HEAT WITHIN THE EARTH 



127 



the land have risen out of the ocean, and other parts have sunk 
beneath it. Perhaps the place where you live, even though it be 
among the mountains, was once below 
the ocean. This can be proved, in 
some places, by finding certain shells, 
called fossils, in the rocks. 

Ages ago these shells were parts of 
animals living in the ocean ; but on 
the death of their owners they became 
buried in the mud and lay there for 
centuries until the layers of mud be- 
came slowly hardened into rock. This 
was later lifted above the water, and 
then frost, rain, and rivers wore the 
upper layers away, bringing the fossils 
to light. 

We have already seen (p. 2) how rock is changing to soil and 
being washed from the land into the ocean. We now learn that this 
settles upon the ocean bottom, hardens into rock, and then, perhaps, 
is lifted into the air. These changes are very slow, but they are going 
on all the time. Places once inhabited by men are now beneath the 
sea, and others where they now live have risen above it. 




Fig. 104. 

A rock containing many fossil 
shells. 



Review Questions, — (1) What is known about the tempera- 
ture of the earth below the surface? (2) What does that suggest? 
(3) What other proof of this conclusion is there? (4) What is a 
volcano? (5) What is the crust of the earth ? (6) What happens as 
the interior cools? (7) Compare this with the drying of an apple. 
(8) How have the ocean basins and continents been formed ? (9) What 
do fossils in the rocks prove? 

Suggestions. — (1) Collect pictures of volcanoes. Of earthquakes. 
Read about some volcanic eruption. (2) Make a drawing of a vol- 
cano. (3) Dry an apple and notice the change. (4) Not all rocks 
contain fossils; but examine those in your section to find if they do. 
(5) If you live near a beach, notice how shells are covered by the 
sands. (6) If a mine were a mile deep, what would be the tempera- 
ture at the bottom, if the average temperature at the surface is. 45°. 

For References, see page 258. 





Fig. 105. — Land (on left-hand side) and water (on right-hand side) hemi- 
spheres. Hemisphere means half sphere ; that is, half the earth. 



V. THE CONTINENTS AND OCEANS 



Land and Water. — The greater part of the land is 
found in the northern hemisphere, the greater part of the 

water in the 
southern 
(Figs. 106 
and 112). 



tXf 




J> u NORTH rfr^^l 
POLE 




W/ 



Fig. 106. — The northern hemisphere, showing the land 
about the north pole, Eurasia in the eastern hemisphere, 
and America in the western. 

128 



It is possi- 
ble to divide 
the earth into 
halves, in one 
of which — 
the land hemi- 
sphere — near- 
ly all the land 
is situated, 
while in the 
other — the 
water hemi- 
sphere — there 
is very little 
land. This is 
shown in 
Fig. 105. 



THE CONTINENTS AND OCEANS 



129 



forth Pore 



The Continents 

In Fig. 106, or, better, on a globe, notice that two 
great masses of land extend from the north polar zone. 
One of these lies in the western hemisphere, and is the land 
on which we live ; the other is in the eastern hemisphere. 

North America. — The western land, which is better 
shown in Fig. 107, is broad near the north pole, and tapers 
down nearly to a 
point just north 
of the equator, 
having the form of 
a triangle. "What 
is the name of 
this part ? 

Show where Xew 
York. "Washington, 
and Chicago should 
be on this map. (See 
the map, Fig. 120.) 
Point also to your 
home. Find some 
rivers, mountains, pe- 
ninsulas, gulfs, and 
other forms of land 
and water. 




south Po/e 

Fig. 107. 
The half of the sphere containing the Xew World. 



South America. 
— South of Xorth 
America, and connected with it by a long neck of land, 
the Isthmus of Panama, lies the continent of South 
America. The two continents together are called the 
two Americas, forming the Xew World which Columbus 
discovered (p. 111). Xotice how much alike they are in 
shape ; draw triangles to show this. 



130 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



Through what zones does North America extend? (See Fig. 98, 
p. 120.) South America? Point to the places where there is snow all 
the time ; to the part where there is never any snow. Where must 
the Eskimo girl, Agoonack, one of the Seven Little Sisters, have 
lived? Read about the Eskimos on page 192. 

Tell how the climate would change if you were to travel from the 
northern end of North America to the southern end of South America. 
What changes would you expect to find in the plants? In the cloth- 
ing of people ? Write a story about such a journey. 

On the opposite page are pictures of some of the wild animals of 
South America (Fig. 109). What wild animals live in North Amer- 
ica? Collect pictures of them. Have you ever seen any of them? 

Eurasia. — East of us, across the Atlantic Ocean, is the 
Old World (Figs. 108 and 113). More land is found 

NORTH 










SOUTH 
Fig. 108. — A hemisphere showing a part of Eurasia and Africa. 



_-, 



" 



MONKEY 




FiCx. 109. 
Some of the auimals of South America. 



132 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



there than in the New World, and the largest mass of 
it is called Eurasia. 

The northern part of Eurasia is in the North Frigid 
zone, on the opposite side of the north pole from North 
America (Fig. 106), and extends a great distance east 
and west. Find for yourself how far south it reaches, 
and through what zones it passes. 

Long ago, before Columbus made his voyage to the 
New World, the most civilized people lived in Europe, 
the western part of that great continent. 

The homes of Jeannette and Louise, two of the Seven Little Sisters, 
were in that country. If you have read the story, can you not tell 

something about 
each of them? 

The eastern 
part of the con- 
tinent is called 
Asia. 

Read in the 
" Seven Little Sis- 
ters " about Ge- 
mila, the child of 
the desert, and of 
Pen-se,the Chinese 
girl, whose homes 
were in Asia. 

Europe is 
usually consid- 
ered one conti- 
nent and Asia 

The home of Jeannette among the Swiss mountains. i 

Find other pictures of these mountains on pages 18 a n O t a e r, al- 
and 23. though, as you 

can see from the maps, especially Fig. 106. they are not 




Fig. 110. 



THE CONTINENTS AND OCEANS 



133 



so clearly separated as the other continents are. For this 
reason Europe and Asia are often called one continent, 
Eurasia, the name being made up of " Eur," from Europe, 
and "Asia." 

Point toward this continent. Walk toward it. Which is probably 
its warmest part ? 

Africa. — South of Europe is the continent of Africa 

Here lived the little dark girl, Manenko, one of the Seven Sisters, 
and this is the place the negroes came from. 




Fig. 111. 
The tiger, one of the wild animals of Africa and Asia. 



In what zones does Africa lie ? How does it compare 
with South America in temperature ? In shape ? In what 
direction would you start in order to go directly to 
Africa ? 

Australia. — South of Asia are many large islands called 
the East India Islands (Fig. 120). Find the zone in 
which they lie. Southeast of these is a large island 
known as the continent of Australia (Fig. 119). In what 
zones is it ? 



134 the earth as a whole 

The Oceans 

The Arctic and Antarctic. — There seems to be a great 
deal of land; but, as we have learned (p. 63), three- 
fourths of the earth is covered by ocean water. The 
water around the north pole (Fig. 106) is called the 
Arctic Ocean. Find it on a globe. 

There are many islands in this ocean, and the water between them 
is covered with ice. The climate is so cold that there are very few 
people, and no crops of any kind can be raised.' Here the Eskimos 
live, hunting the polar bear, seal, and walrus to obtain meat for food, 
fur for clothing, and oil for fuel and light (see p. 192). 

Much less is known about the Antarctic Ocean (Fig. 
112), which surrounds the south pole, and in which there 
is also a great deal of floating ice. 

The Atlantic. — Extending from the Arctic to the Ant- 
arctic is the Atlantic Ocean, having the Old World on the 
east and the New World on the west. This is the water 
that we cross in going to Europe, and many of the things 
we eat and wear are brought across it. Can you name 
some of them ? Find what continents the Atlantic 
bathes. 

The Pacific. — The water west of North America is 
called the Pacific Ocean, which is the largest of all oceans, 
occupying more than one-third of the earth's surface. 
What continents does it bathe ? Walk toward it. 

The Indian. — There is still another great body of water 
called the Indian Ocean (Fig. 108). It lies south of 
India in Asia, and between Africa on one side and Aus- 
tralia and the East Indies on the other. 

The Ocean Bottom. — The depth of the ocean water 
varies considerably | on the average it is a little over two 





a S 

2 8 
2 ^ 



b/o a 
.2 ^ 

fc O . 

■s^ S 



"1 -s g 

£ <u n 
•So® 



S£ 



b-5 







a c- 

ga 



e* O ra 







THE CONTINENTS AND OCEANS 



135 




Fig. 116. 
One of the deep-sea fish. 



miles, but in some places it is more than four miles deep. 
In this immense body of water are millions of animals, 
some of them, as the whale, shark, codfish, and seal, being 
of use to man. 

The bed of the ocean is mainly a great plain, where it 
is as dark as our darkest night, because the sunlight 
cannot pass 
through so 
much water. 
In conse- 
quence, the 
fish living 
there have 
little use for eyes, and some have none. 

The mud which covers the bottom is in many places 
made up of the shells of tiny animals, many of them 
even smaller than a pinhead. Some of the chalk used 
in schools was just such mud before it was raised to 
form rock layers on the dry land. 

Mountains in the Oceans. — While most of the bottom 
of the sea is a plain, some 
parts are not so level. Here 
and there are mountain peaks, 
and chains of islands, extend- 
ing above the sea far away 
from the continents. Many of 
these are portions of mountain 
chains rising above the water ; 
but many, like the Hawaiian 
Islands, are volcanoes which 
have been built up by lava 
flowing from the interior of the earth (p„ 125) 




Fig. 117. 

A piece of coral, with the polyps 
projecting from the hard coral 
like a bunch of flowers. 



136 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



Coral Islands. 

interestina- kind 




Fig. 118. 

A ring-like coral island, 
called an atoll, in the 
open ocean. 



-In the open ocean there is another 
of island known as the coral island 
(Fig. 118). Some very tiny crea- 
tures, called coral polyps, build hard, 
limy coral, such as you have no 
doubt seen. Where the ocean water 
is warm, as in the torrid zone, these 
little animals live in immense num- 
bers, millions of them around a 
single island. 

Each polyp resembles a fully 
blossomed flower; and they vary 
greatly in color, being white, pink, purple, red, yellow, 
brown, and many other colors. It is a truly beautiful 
sight to see them spread out in the water, looking like 
a flower garden in the sea (Fig. 117). 

When these coral animals die, the hard coral part re- 
mains. Then other polyps build upon these skeletons, 
and this is continued until the surface of the water is 
reached and coral islands are formed. 

Review Questions. — (1) Name the five continents, counting 
Eurasia as one. (2) Write their names. (3) Walk toward each of 
them. (4) Tell what you can about each. (5) Where is the Arctic 
Ocean ? The Antarctic ? (6) Tell something about the people and 
animals of the Arctic region. (7) What oceans touch North Amer- 
ica? (8) Name five oceans. Which is the largest? (9) What are 
the conditions on the ocean bottom? (10) In what ways are islands 
in the open ocean formed ? (11) How are coral islands made ? 

Suggestions. — (1) Make an outline drawing of each of the 
continents. (2) Of each ocean. (3) Collect pictures of the animals, 
people, and scenery of the continents. (4) Write a story about one 
of the pictures. (5) Obtain pieces of coral for the school collection. 

For References, see page 258. 



VI. MAPS 

The maps that have been thus far used are all hemi- 
spheres, and represent the earth as it would appear if 
we looked down upon it from above. Such maps are 
especially desirable because they call attention to the 
roundness of the earth ; but they are so difficult to make 
that it is customary to represent the earth on flat maps 
instead. 

In Fig. 119 you can see the difference between the two. 
While the lower ones show the roundness of the earth, 
the upper two represent it as quite flat. Although they 
are unlike, the latter show the position of the land and 
the water quite as plainly as the former. Since this is 
true, and since it is much easier to make the flat maps, 
these will be the ones chiefly used hereafter in this book. 
But in studying flat maps one should always remember 
to think of the earth as round, and not as a flat surface. 1 
It should also be noticed that on flat maps it is impossible 
to show correctly both the shape and the size of countries. 
Compare Greenland and South America in Fig. 119 with 
the same countries in Fig. 120. If you should draw a 
picture on half of a toy balloon made of rubber, and then 
stretch the rubber flat, would the picture look the same ? 
Examine Fig. 120 also. 2 

1 The teacher should see that this is done by frequent use of a globe. 
It is advisable to have one large globe and several small ones, so that each 
pupil may have one for frequent use. 

2 These maps (Figs. 119 and 120) should be carefully studied, the 
pupil following map questions given by the teacher to cover form, loca- 
tion, etc. , of continents, oceans, and important places. 

137 




Fig. 121. 

Relief map of North America. 
(Modelled by E. E. Howell.) 



VII. NORTH AMERICA 

Physical Geography. — Here is a relief map of the con- 
tinent on which we live. What great highland do you 
find in the west ? In the east ? In what direction does 
each extend ? Which is the broader and higher ? Where 
is the lowest land between these two highlands ? Trace 
the Mississippi River. Name some of its largest tribu- 
taries. (You will find these rivers on the map, Fig. 123.) 
Find the Rio Grande River in the south , the St. Law- 
rence River in the northeast ; the Yukon in the north- 
west. What two great rivers flow westward from the 
Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean ? 

Notice the slope east of the Appalachian Mountains. 
Is it longer or shorter than that west of the Rockies ? 
What, then, are the main slopes in North America? 
Upon which of these slopes do you live ? Point as 
nearly as you can to the place where your home is. 




Fig. 122. 

Section across United States, from east to west, to show mountains, plains, 
and principal slopes. 

Find New York and San Francisco on Fig, 123. If you were to 
go westward from the former to the latter, you would travel over 
many hills, valleys, and mountains. Some of the slopes would be 
short and gentle ; others would be very long, and sometimes gentle, 
sometimes steep. Here is a drawing showing the chief slopes you 
would cross in making that journey. Point on Fig. 121 to the slopes 
A, B, C, D, E, and F, of the drawing. Draw a section like this. 

139 



140 TEE EARTE AS A WEOLE 

Political Divisions. — ■ You will remember that Spain was 
the nation that helped Columbus make his discovery of 
America. The Spaniards afterward settled in the south- 
ern part of the continent, and introduced the Spanish 
language there. That is still the chief language spoken 
in Mexico, in the southern part of North America. Mexico 
became independent of Spain many years ago. 

Other nations also sent explorers and made settlements. 
Among these were the English, who settled chiefly along 
the Atlantic coast, and finally came to own the greater 
part of the continent north of Mexico. 

In time the English who lived in the central portion of 
eastern North America waged war against England, and 
chose George Washington as their leader. On the 4th of 
July, 1776, they declared their independence of England, 
and finally won it completely. This part became known 
as the United States; but the region to the north, which 
England was able to keep, and which she still possesses, is 
called Canada. Find each of these countries on the map 
(Fig. 123). Point toward Canada and Mexico. 

Besides these three large nations, several smaller ones 
occupy Central America, which lies south of Mexico. 

Of course there must be some place where oue country ends and 
another begins. Such a place is called a boundary, and the boundary 
lines between the different nations are shown on this map by heavy 
lines. Point them out. 

In some parts you see that a natural boundary has been chosen, 
such as a river or a chain of lakes ; but it is often only a straight line, 
cutting across rivers, lakes, and mountains. Examine the boundary 
of the United States to determine how much of it is natural. 

Where the boundary is only a straight line, it is marked by a row 
of posts or stone pillars a few rods apart, and if you were to cross 
from one country to another you could easily see them. 




Fig. 123, 



VIII. THE UNITED STATES 

Map Questions. — (1) What -waters border the United States? 
(2) What countries? (3) What is the greatest distance across the 
United States, east and west? (Xotice the scale of miles on the map.) 
Xorth and south? (4) Where are the main divides? (5) Do you see 
any part that has very few streams? What does that suggest to you? 
(6) Find New York, Philadelphia, Boston, Baltimore, Washington, 
Chicago, Xew Orleans, St. Louis, Denver, and San Francisco, and tell 
where each is. 

When our war for independence began there were thir- 
teen large settlements, called colonies, which at the close 
of the war became known as states. Our flag still has its 
thirteen red and white stripes to remind us of them. 

There were at first only thirteen stars in the blue field of the flag; 
but one has been added for each new state until now there are many 
more. Count the stars on a flag to see how many states there are. 

For a long time after the war for independence, the in- 
terior and western parts of what is now the United States 
formed an unknown wilderness belonging to other nations, 
and inhabited chiefly by Indians. The United States has 
obtained part of this land by war, and part of it by pur- 
chase, so that the country is now several times as large as 
it was at first. Many large states have been added ; but 
there are still some parts, called territories, which have- 
not yet been made into states. 

In order that they may be more easily studied, the 
states are usually divided into groups. Let us take first 
the northeastern group called the New England States; 
and afterwards, others. 

141 



IX. NEW ENGLAND 

Maf Questions. — (1) Name the six states included in New Eng- 
land. (2) Which is largest? (3) Which smallest? (4) Which has 
no seacoast? (5) What mountains are found in these states? What 
rivers? (6) Remembering what was said on pages 66 and 90, where 
would you expect to find the largest cities? (7) What is the capital 
of each state? (8) Point to Cambridge in Massachusetts, where Long- 
fellow lived. (9) To Boston. Walk toward Boston. (10) In what 
direction would one sail from there to reach England? (See Fig. 120.) 




Fig. 126. 

A view of Boston, the largest city in New England, showing its harhor and 
some of the ships in it. 

Names. — The settlers who came to this part of North 
America called it New England. Several names on the 
map also commence with New, as New Hampshire and 
New Haven. Find others. What reason can you give 
for their using that word so often? 

Seaports. — If you examine the map you will notice that 
the coast is very irregular, with many small bays, promon° 

142 




Capitals ® Othec Cities i 



Fig 125 



NEW ENGLAND 



143 



tories, and fine harbors. Draw the coast-line, showing 
some of these. 

The excellent harbors have determined the places where 
great cities should grow up. The largest of all is Boston, 
and two others are Portland and Providence. Point 
them out. What direc- 
tion is each from the 
others, and in what 
state is each ? 

Fishing. — Some of the 
towns are located on the 
coast because the men who 
live in them are fishermen, 
and must have their homes 
near the water. In the early 
days, cod, mackerel, and 
halibut were easily caught 
near the shore ; but now it 
is often necessary to sail far 
from land, the men being 
gone perhaps for weeks be- 
fore filling their vessels 
(Fig. 67, p. 73) with fish. 

Portland, Boston, and Gloucester 1 are important fish markets, 
the latter being the largest fishing port in the country. Fish is sent from 
there to all parts of the United States, and even to foreign countries. 

Farming. — A fine harbor by itself cannot make a great 
city. As you remember (p. 59), this is important simply 
because it renders the loading and unloading of vessels 
both easy and safe. But unless there were many people 
supplying and needing materials, there would be little 
need of using these harbors. 

1 Whenever cities, rivers, etc., are mentioned in the text, the pupils 
should be required to locate them on the map, giving state and position. 




Fig. 127. 

Fishermen hoisting halibut from a fishing 
vessel at Gloucester. Notice that these 
fish are as large as a man. 



144 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



Let us see, then, if there are many people living farthei 
inland and what they do. 

One might expect that there would be much farming 
here ; but there are so many hills and mountains, and the 
soil is often so thin and stony, that the farms are usually 
small, supplying only vegetables, milk, butter, and other 
products to be used in the cities near by. Some of them, 
far from the cities, have been abandoned because the land 
is so hilly and the soil so poor. 




Fig. 128. 
Lumbermen engaged in floating logs down-stream from the forest. 

Quarrying. — But "while the rocky hills and mountains hinder farm- 
ing, they often furnish excellent granite, which is used for buildings 
and street pavements. White marble, used in monuments, is also 
found among the mountains near Rutland, Vermont; and slate, for 
roofs of houses, and for writing slates, is obtained both in Vermont 
and Maine. 

Lumbering. — Since many of the hills and mountains 
are still covered with forests, much lumber is obtained 
from them, especially from the mountainous part of north- 
ern Maine. As you can see from the map (Fig. 125), 



NEW ENGLAND 



145 



there are very few towns in this section, most of the 
country being wooded. 

During spring freshets, when the winter snows are melt- 
ing, the logs are floated down-stream, often to a place where 
ocean steamers 
can reach them. 
Here they are 
sawed into lum- 
ber and loaded 
upon vessels to 
be carried in all 
directions. Ban- 
gor, on the Pe- 
nobscot River, 
has become a 

larg'e citv chief- ^- a P showing the regions from which considerable 
. . „ timber is now being obtained. 

ly because ol its 

lumber industry. Other towns on the Kennebec and the 

Androscoggin rivers have grown in the same way. 



33 V I ( ^'4"yf 

29 I 1 \ > 

25 * \\S 

119 IQ lll\ >)07 


107 103 N9. ( 

,r» 9,9 1 


95 91 87 83 B 76 ^Uj |jj I , 


-•'- t ! ^>/ v 


SCALE OF MILES \lf|\ *-. 25 


100 201) 3Q0. 100 N* fl Oh 
S3 91 37 83 .^79^ <-5 



Fig. 129. 




Fig 130 

Lumber ships loading boards from the great piles that can be seen on the 
wharf. Here are also many logs ready to go to the saw-mill to be made 
into boards. 



146 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

Manufacturing. — But we have not yet come to the most 
important occupation of the New England people. The 
short rivers, having their sources in the uplands, flow with 
swift course to the sea, and are often interrupted by rapids 
and falls. In one way this is a disadvantage, because 
vessels cannot go far up-stream ; but in another way it is 
a great advantage. Can you see how ? 

On page 50 you learned that streams with swift cur- 
rents and waterfalls furnish the best water-power. Where 
such power is abundant, wheels can be turned and great 
factories be run. This makes it clear why the chief in- 




Fig. 131. 
Great cotton-mills on the Merrimac River at Manchester, New Hampshire. 

dustry of New England is manufacturing. In fact, the 
New England states are among the most important manu- 
facturing states in the Union. 

The principal rivers that furnish water-power are the 
Merrimac, Connecticut, and the three in Maine already 
mentioned (p. 145). Find each of these, and trace its 
course from source to mouth. Make a drawing to rep- 
resent each one, and locate upon it some of the large 
cities. 

There is so much manufacturing in New England, by 
the use of water-power and steam, that shiploads of cotton 



NEW ENGLANZ 147 

are sent there to be made into cloth at such cities as Man- 
chester (Fig. 131), Lowell, New Bedford, and Fall 
Riyer. Great quantities of wool are brought to be made 
into woollen goods at Lawrence and Providence, which 
also manufacture cotton goods ; and thousands of hides of 
cattle and other animals to be made into boots, shoes, gloves, 
and leather of all kinds at Lynn and other cities. Iron 
and other metals are also brought to be made into knives, 
needles, watches, firearms, machines, and hundreds of 
other articles at Worcester, Bridgeport, Springfield, 
New Haven, and Hartford. In Boston itself there is 
also a vast amount of manufacturing of different kinds. 

Find each of these cities; tell in what state it is and upon what 
river, if the name is given on the map. All of the other cities 
marked on the map are also engaged in some kind of manufacturing. 
Perhaps the shoes or some of the clothing that you wear were made 
in one of these places. 

Commerce. — Some of the manufactured articles are 
shipped to all parts of the United States, and even to 
other countries. It is to a considerable extent this im- 
mense amount of manufacturing that furnishes employ- 
ment to the people along the coast, and has caused the 
large cities to grow about the best harbors. 

Not only do the persons living in the interior produce 
great quantities of goods to be shipped- away, but they 
require others to be shipped in. Much of their food and 
also the cotton, wool, and hides must be brought to them. 
The amount of shipping is therefore very great, and this 
is one of the chief reasons why Boston, Portland, and 
Providence have become large cities. To the first two 
goods are sent by rail from the far West to be shipped 
abroad. 



148 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

Review Questions. — (1) Why is it an advantage to New Eng- 
land that its coast is so irregular? (2) Mention some of the larger 
seaports. (3) Name the principal fishing port in the country. (4) Tell 
what you can about the farming. (5) What kinds of stone are found, 
and for what are they used? Where are they found? (6) Describe 
the lumbering. Which state produces the most lumber ? (7) Explain 
how the lumber trade has determined the location of Bangor. On 
what river is it situated ? (8) Why cannot vessels go far up the New 
England rivers ? (9) How are the rivers useful for manufacturing ? 
Name several that furnish water-power. (10) What goods are manu- 
factured there? In what cities? (11) What articles must be shipped 
to this section? Why? (12) Tell how such commerce affects the 
size of the coast cities. 

Suggestions. — (1) What stories of New England do you know? 
(2) Read about the Puritans. (3) Go into a fish store to see a cod- 
fish, mackerel, halibut, etc. (4) Examine some granite so that you 
will know it the next time you see it. (5) Find a monument made 
of white marble. (6) Find a house whose roof is covered with slate. 
(7) Start a collection for the school by bringing specimens of use- 
ful stones. (8) Try to find out more about lumbering in Maine. 
Hunt for pictures illustrating this work. (9) Start a school collec- 
tion of pictures from magazines, etc. (10) How many articles can 
you mention that are made of wood? (11) Get some friend to take 
you through some kind of a factory, and tell the class what you saw. 
(12) Draw a sketch-map of New England, locating the rivers, capital 
cities, and principal towns. 

For References, see page 259. 



81° Longitude 



M est 77° iroia 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 



Greensrich^ 73° 



Scale of~Miles 
25 50 75 igo 




Fig. 132, 



X. MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 

Map Questions. — (1) Which of the Middle Atlantic states bor- 
der on the Atlantic Ocean? (2) Which does not? (3) Which is 
smallest? (4) How does Pennsylvania compare in size with New 
England? (You will find the scale on each map.) (5) Name the 
chief rivers and tell where they are. (6) Which state extends far- 
thest east? Which farthest west? (7) What natural boundaries do 
you find between them? (What are the names of the mountain 
ranges? (9) Which state has no mountains? 

The Coast-line. — Observe that, as in New England, 
the coast-line of the Middle Atlantic states is very irregu- 
lar. At three places the sinking of the land has caused 
the ocean water to reach far into the land, forming Chesa- 
peake, Delaware, and New York bays. Find each; also 
draw the coast-line to show these bays. 

The Seaports. — The largest cities in New England 
were found along the coast on bays similar to these, though 
smaller. The same is true here. New York, on the last- 
named bay, is the largest city in the United States and 
next to the largest in the world. Southwest of it is Phila- 
delphia on the Delaware, just as far up the river as 
large ocean vessels can go. Farther south, near the head 
of Chesapeake Bay, is a third great city, named Balti- 
more, in the state of Maryland. 

Reasons for the Great Size of New York City 

Cities near by. — Near New York harbor we find not only 
New York, but Jersey City, Newark, and Brooklyn, 

149 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



which has lately become a part of Greater New York. 
Other cities like Paterson are not far away. That is, 
not only one, but several great cities have grown up here 
very near together. Let us see why more people should 
have crowded together here than in any other part of the 
New World. 

One reason is that from New York harbor, where hun- 
dreds of vessels may enter at one time, goods can be 

shipped over the At- 
lantic Ocean to vari- 
ous parts of the world. 
Water-route to the 
Interior. — A second 
reason is that goods 
may also be shipped 
westward by water. 
Looking at the map, 
you see that New 
York Bay is at the 
mouth of the Hudson 
River. The sinking of the land has caused the ocean 
water to enter this river, and thereby to make it so broad 
and deep that large vessels can ascend it as far as Albany. 
A few miles from Albany the Mohawk River enters the 
Hudson from the west, having its source far over toward 
Syracuse. 

Long ago people saw that if they could construct a 
water-way from the Hudson River to Buffalo, they 
could go by water all the way from New York to Buffalo ; 
and then, since the Great Lakes are connected with one 
another, they could go all the way to the western end of 
Lake Superior. Use the scale of the map (Fig. 124) 




Fig. 133. 

The broad Hudson River at Poughkeepsie, 
where a railway bridge crosses it. 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 



151 



to find how many miles that is. Through what lakes 
would the route lead? 

The scheme was finally carried out by building the Erie 
Canal from Buffalo, on Lake Erie, to the Mohawk Valley, 
then down that valley to Albany. (See map, Fig. 132.) 

As the Western country became settled, more and more 
goods were shipped to and from New York. When rail- 
ways began to be built many of them also led there. In 
this way New York has become a great city, and the chief 
shipping-point for a large part of the United States. Let 
us see what some 
of the goods are 
that are sent to 
New York. 

Lumbering. — 
On the map 
(Fig. 132) you 
will find the Ad- 
irondack Moun- 
tains north of 
the Mohawk, 
and the Cats- FlG ' m - 

1 m \T + ' In a salt mine, a thousand feet beneath the surface, 

Kill Mountains ^ ce ntral New York. The walls and sides of these 

SOUth of it. tunnels are glistening white salt. 

Among these there are still forests, as in Maine, so that 
lumbering is an important industry there. 

Farming. — These mountains do not cover all of the 
state ; most of it is more level, and has a rich soil upon 
it. Farming is therefore much more important than in 
New England. Besides butter and cheese, considerable 
hay and grain are produced, and an abundance of fruit, 
such as apples, pears, peaches, plums, and grapes. 




152 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

Salt. — An extensive bed of salt is found deep down 
in the earth, in the central part of the state. Salt is 
taken from it in many places, and it was the important 
salt industry that determined the location, and much of 
the early growth, of Syracuse. 

Manufacturing. — Again, in this state, as in New Eng- 
land there are many streams with waterfalls. Manufac- 
turing has therefore become extensive. 




Fig. 135. 

Niagara Falls, the greatest cataract in the world (160 feet high). 

In Rochester, at the falls of the Genesee River (Fig. 75, p. 85), 
are many flour mills. The cities on the Mohawk are also engaged in 
manufacturing. What are their names? In Buffalo, the second 
city in size in New York State, much use is made of power from the 
Niagara Falls, twenty miles away. Troy, near Albany, makes 
shirts, collars, and cuffs. These cities, as you see, are situated along 
the water-route already mentioned. Why? What others do you find 
along this route ? 

In New York City itself there is a vast amount of manufacturing, 
steam being used for power. In fact, in many places, even where 
there is water-power, factories now often use steam; but when the 
manufacturing- began, people could not use steam because they did 
not know how, and the first manufacturing towns were built where 
there was water-power. 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 153 

Commerce. — So much manufacturing, together with 
the farming and other industries of the state, helps to 
explain the great amount of commerce. People are con- 
tinually sending goods to New York and receiving others 
in exchange. It should be remembered, too, that cities 
hundreds of miles farther west, in the neighborhood of 
the Great Lakes, are connected with New York by water 
and rail, and are engaged in trade with it. 

From this it is plain why the largest city in America is 
situated where it is, and why other cities have grown up 
about New York harbor. 

Reasons why Philadelphia has become a Great 

City 

Cities near by. — Philadelphia, like New York, has 
other important cities near by. Directly across the Dela- 
ware is Camden in New Jersey; and to the northeast, 
also in New Jersey, is Trenton, where a clay is found 
that is made into dishes and earthenware. To the south- 
west is Wilmington in Delaware, where many ships and 
railway cars are built. 

Farming. — The soil and climate in this neighborhood 
are well adapted to growing such fruits as peaches, pears, 
apples, grapes, and berries. On this account there are 
many factories for canning fruit in some of these cities. 

To the northwest of Philadelphia are the Appalachian 
Mountains. Note the direction in which they extend 
across the state. The valleys among the mountains, and 
the plateaus and lowlands east and west of them, are fer- 
tile enough for good farming, especially wheat raising, 
sheep raising, and dairying ; but lumbering is still carried 
on among the mountains. 



154 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 




Fig. 136. 

The forest-covered slopes of the Appalachian Mountains in Pennsylvania, at 
Mauch Chunk. 

*: 

Iron. — Several substances found beneath the soil in 
Pennsylvania are its most important products. 

In the first place, a great amount of iron ore is found 
there. When dug out of the ground this often resembles 
reddish earth, and it never looks exactly like iron; but 
by melting the ore, iron is obtained from it, and is then 
shipped to many places to be made into stoves, engines, 
guns, ships, knives, and a thousand other things. Pitts- 
burg and Allegheny are noted for such manufacturing; 
also Reading and Harrisburg, the capital, as well as 
Philadelphia and its neighboring cities. See how long a 
list you can make of articles made of iron and steel. 

Coal. — It requires an immense amount of fuel to pro- 
duce the heat necessary to obtain iron from the ore and 
to make it into the many articles mentioned. Fortunately 
great quantities of coal are also found in this state, soft 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 



155 




.Fig. 137. 

In a Pennsylvania coal mine, where the walls are black instead of white as in 
the salt mine (Fig. 134) . 

coal being mined in the western part near Pittsburg 
and Allegheny, and hard or anthracite coal in the east- 
ern part near Scranton and Wilkes Barre. 

Much coal is needed for shoves and furnaces in houses, and also 
for producing steam for factories. There is, therefore, a great 
demand for it, and 
every year it is 
shipped by thou- 
sands of car-loads 
to New York, Phil- 
adelphia, and else- 
where, often to be 
loaded upon ships 
to be sent to Boston 
and many other 
cities. 

Oil and Gas. — 
Gas, much like that 
used in lighting 




Fig. 138. 



156 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

houses, and petroleum, the oil from which kerosene is made, are also 
found beneath the soil in the western part of Pennsylvania and New 
York. There is so much gas in some places that it is burned as a fuel 
in manufacturing glass and other articles, as at Pittsburg and elsewhere. 

Commerce. — The products of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, 
and Delaware, principally fruit, grain, lumber, iron, coal, 
gas, and oil, together with the manufacture of iron goods, 
have helped to make Philadelphia a great city. As in 
the case of New York, many of these substances are sent 
to Philadelphia to be manufactured; and, like New York, 
Philadelphia is one of the great manufacturing cities of 
the country. Many other materials are sent there to be 
shipped away by water; and many ship-loads of goods, for 
people living in other cities farther west, are unloaded at 
Philadelphia. 

Other Cities 

Baltimore. — Baltimore has grown in much the same 
way. Its harbor is excellent, and both coal and iron can 
easily reach it from Pennsylvania. Like Philadelphia, 
Boston, and New York, it has an important commerce and 
much manufacturing. 

Oysters abound in the shallow waters of Chesapeake Bay, and are 
shipped from Norfolk, Annapolis, and Baltimore. 

Washington. — Another large city in this section is 
Washington, on the Potomac River in the District of 
Columbia. Although large vessels are able to reach it, 
it owes its importance not to commerce, but to the fact 
that it is the National Capital, where there are many great 
government buildings (Fig. 85, p. 99), and thousands of 
men and women employed in the service of the govern- 
jnent. Can you describe some of the work which they 
are required to do ? 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 



157 



Virginia and West Virginia. — Richmond, on the James 
River, is the capital and most important city of Virginia, 
the state in which Washington and Jefferson lived. The 
western part of the state is mountainous, as is the eastern 
part of West Virginia, the mountains furnishing lumber and 
iron. Also in West Virginia, as in Pennsylvania, there is a 
great amount of coal, oil, and gas. This leads to extensive 
manufacturing, especially at Wheeling, on the Ohio River. 




Fig. 139. 

A picture of Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, vnth the National Capitol 
building standing at the farther end. 

Farming is the chief work in Virginia. The climate is 
so mild that tobacco can be raised much more profitably 
than in the states farther north. The tobacco plant, which 
white men found the Indians smoking, has a large leaf 
that is picked and dried, and then made into cigars and 
other forms in which tobacco is used. Factories are 
needed for such work, and they represent one of the main 
industries of Richmond, which is a great tobacco market. 
as Gloucester is a great fish marketo 



158 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

Review Questions. — (1) Name the chief seaports. Walk tow- 
ard each as you name it. (2) What reasons can you give for the 
great size of New York City? (3) Make a drawing of the Hudson 
and Mohawk rivers. (4) What cities do you find on the Erie Canal? 

(5) What can you say about the farming in New York State? 

(6) Where is the salt found? (7) What about manufacturing in 
New York? (8) What are the chief farm products near Philadelphia 
and Wilmington? (9) Why is iron manufacture so important in 
Pennsylvania? (10) Tell why Philadelphia has become a great city, 

(11) Where are Pittsburg, Allegheny, Scranton, and Wilkes Barre? 

(12) For what is Baltimore noted? (13) Washington? (14) For 
what industry is Richmond noted? (15) Where are Richmond and 
Wheeling? (16) In which state is each of the cities mentioned? 

Suggestions. — (1) Make a list of all the cities named. (2) Are 
any of them not situated either upon the seashore, on rivers, or lakes? 
(3) Which is farther north, Buffalo or Boston ? (See Fig. 124, oppo- 
site p. 141.) (4) Find .what some of the chief difficulties are in build- 
ing canals. (5) Examine some iron ore and add it to the school 
collection. (6) Visit a factory where iron goods are manufactured. 

(7) Why does Buffalo promise to be a growing city? (8) Why have 
Pittsburg and Allegheny a good location? (9) Give two reasons why 
Wilmington is a good place for shipbuilding. (10) Collect some 
pieces of anthracite or hard, and bituminous or soft, coal, and com- 
pare them. (11) Read the story of Rip Van Winkle. The mountains 
described are the Catskills. (12) Draw an outline map of- these 
states and include the capitals. (13) Draw each of the states from 
memory. (14) Find out some facts about Washington, — its build- 
ings, the people who live there, and what they do. (15) On the map 
(Fig. 124, opposite p. 141) the word Delaware is not spelled out be- 
cause there is not room, but Del. is put in its place. All the states 
have abbreviations like this, which we use in writing letters. Find 
out the abbreviation for each state in this group and in New England. 
Also for the other states as you study about them. 

For References, see page 259o 



cWo%r oS r iD W 




Fig. 140. 




SOUTHERN STATES 

EASTERN SECTION 

Scale of Miles 

i 60 100 2U0 ; 

Capitals of Slates © Other Cities • 

I ._ 

&il° Longitude 



West 85° f 



Gretuwk-h Sl° 



Fig. 140. 



XI. SOUTHERN STATES 

Map Questions. — (1) Where are the mountains in this group of 
states? (2) Where are the plains? (See map, Fig. 140.) (3) Notice 
the direction in which the land slopes. (4) Name the gulf on the 
south side. (5) How is Texas separated from Mexico? (6) What 
large peninsula do you find on this map? (7) Which is the largest 
state ? (8) How does it seem to compare with South Carolina in size ? 
With Pennsylvania ? (9) About how many miles is it by sea from New 
Orleans to Boston ? (See map, Fig. 124, opposite p. 141.) (10) Notice 
how near these states are to the Tropic of Cancer. (See map, Fig. 123, 
opposite p. 140.) What does that tell you about their climate ? . 

Relief. — The Appalachian Mountains extend into Ala- 
bama, passing across several of the Southern states. 
Name them. There are also some low mountains in west- 
ern Arkansas and Missouri, and a portion of the Rocky 
Mountains in western Texas. 

But this part of the country is mainly a great region of 
plains. Near the mountains, the plains are quite high 
above the sea ; but near the coast there is a strip of low, 
level land known as the coastal plains. 

Other low land is found along the Mississippi River, 
where there are broad flood-plains protected from the river 
floods by banks, called levees. Notice especially the Mis- 
sissippi delta, and explain how it happens that the land 
projects so far into the gulf. (See pp. 46 and 47.) 

We observe, then, that in this group of states are some 
mountains ; between these and the coast are high plains 
or plateaus ; then along the coast are low plains. Let us 
see what these three sections produce. 



160 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



Coal and Iron. — Coal and iron are found among the Ap- 
palachian Mountains here, as in Pennsylvania. You would 

expectfromthis 
to find manufac- 
turing centres 
near the moun- 
tains ; and Bir- 
mingham, At- 
lanta, Chat- 
tanooga, and 
Knoxville 
are engaged in 
manufacture. 
Find each, and 
tell what state 
it is in. 




Fig. 141. 

Negro children playing on a bag of cotton bolls, just 
picked. The white spots in the field are cotton bolls. 



Cotton. — On the plains the soil is usually fertile, the 
climate is warm, and there is plenty of rain everywhere 
excepting in western Texas and Oklahoma. For these 
reasons farming is 
the chief occupa- 
tion. The south- 
ern farms are 
commonly called 
plantations, and 
the principal crop 
on the higher 
plains, away from 
the coast, is cot- 
ton. 

The cotton plant grows to a height of two to four feet. It has a 
white blossom, and after the flower is gone a small pod grows. This 



f W • A&' 


M'f- 


1 I:' 










f\A ¥ j 


i '■'-• 


I&3& 




ffifSI 




v ^yR 




. • 







Fig. 142. 
A small cotton-field and a negro home. The cot- 
ton bolls look like white flowers. 



SOUTHERN STATES 



161 



pod enlarges until it ripens and bursts into a white ball, called the 
cotton boll, which looks somewhat like a milkweed pod after it has 
burst open. 

The cotton bolls are picked in the autumn by men, women, and 
children, and then placed in a machine called the cotton gin ; this 
removes the cotton seed, and also separates or combs out the threads 
of cotton. The cotton is then packed in bales, like hay, and shipped 
away to be made into thread, cotton cloth, and other goods. Name 
more of them. Name some of the cities in New England where this 
manufacturing is carried on. (See p. 147.) 

Corn and wheat are also grown upon these higher plains, 
and tobacco, especially in the northern part of this section. 




Fig. 143. 

Great bunches of cattle feeding on the ranches of the arid plains of the west. 

Ranching. — The drier plains of western Texas are 
covered with grass, which furnishes food for herds of 
horses, cattle, and sheep. The work of raising these 
animals is, therefore, one of the most important industries 
of this state. The section of land over which a man's 
cattle roam is not called a farm or plantation, but a cattle 
ranch, and the business is known as ranching. 

Since a few men can look after several thousand horses, cattle, or 
sheep, few people are needed to carry on ranching. On that account 
there are not many towns in the western part of Texas, as you can see 
on the map. Many cattle are sent eastward from Dallas by rail to 
be used as food. 



162 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 




Sugar and 
Rice. — On the 

low, swampy 
plains near the 
coast and along 
the lower Missis- 
sippi River, rice 
and sugar-cane 
are raised. Rice 
Fig. 144. seeds grow on a 

Negro women cutting sugar-cane in Louisiana. p-rasslike plant in 

wet soil. Sugar-cane looks much like corn ; but the juice 

of the stalk is so 

sweet that it can be 

made into sugar and 

molasses. 

Fruits. — Besides the 
crops mentioned, the low 
plain of Florida produces 
fruits. It is so far south 
that its climate is warm 
enough for oranges, lem- 
ons, and pineapples ; prob- 
ably your grocery store 
has such fruits from 
Florida and California. 

Lumbering. — Some of 
these plains, both the high 
and the low ones, are still 
wooded. It is from them 
that the hard or Georgia 
pine, so often used in 
floors, is obtained. There are forests also in the mountains, so that 
there is an abundance of timber in this region. Which Northern 




Fig. 145. 

A pineapple field in Florida. 



SOUTHERN STATES 163 

state already studied has a large amount of timber ? In what section 
would you expect the climate to prevent the growth of forests ? 

Manufacturing. — Knowing what is produced in the 
Southern states, we naturally expect much manufactur- 
ing. There are coal, iron ore, corn, wheat, sugar-cane, 
cattle, sheep, cotton, and lumber, from each of which 
useful articles can be made. Tell what they are. There 
is also water-power in many places. 

For a long time most of the manufacturing in the 
United States was done in New England. Great quan- 
tities of cotton and other raw products were sent there 
from the South to be manufactured. Then some of the 
finished articles were brought back for use in the South. 

This condition has now greatly changed. The Southern 
states still ship much cotton to New England and Europe, 
but much is retained for manufacture at home. No other 
part of the country has shown so rapid progress in manu- 
facturing as the Southern states. They are one of the 
greatest cotton-manufacturing regions in the world. 

Near the coal fields important iron and steel manufac- 
turing industries have arisen ; near the forest regions are 
many lumber mills. The abundance of coal, iron, and lum- 
ber has made possible the manufacture of farm implements 
and other articles of iron and wood. Each year the impor- 
tance of manufacturing in the South is rapidly increasing. 

The variety of manufactures is far too great to list. Besides arti- 
cles of iron, wood, and cotton, tobacco is made into many forms; wool 
into cloth and other woollen goods; hides into leather; cotton seed 
into cotton-seed oil ; sugar-cane into sugar and molasses ; the sap of 
the pine tree into turpentine, tar, and rosin. 

New Orleans. — The principal cities in the South are 
those that have grown up at the best shipping points, 



164 



that is, on the ocean harbors, on the rivers, or on some of 
the great railways. 

The greatest city in this entire section is New Orleans, 
in Louisiana, on the Mississippi River about one hundred 
miles from its mouth. It is almost as large as Pittsburg. 




Fig. 116. 

Loading and unloading goods on the levee at New Orleans. Notice the mules, 

one of the most common draft animals of the South. 

Like New York it can be reached not only by railway, 
but also by vessels from across the Atlantic Ocean, and by 
others from distant inland cities. Ocean ships are able to 
pass up the river from the Gulf; and river boats can reach it 
from cities far up the Mississippi and its tributaries. Find 
some of these cities, such as Pittsburg and St. Louis (Fig. 
124). Measure the distance from New Orleans to Pittsburg. 

These facts help to explain why New Orleans is a great cotton- 
shipping port. Quantities of cotton-seed oil, sugar, molasses, and rice 
are also sent from there. Manufactured goods, as cloth and shoes, 
and foods, as meat and corn, are brought to this centre, and there 
distributed in all directions. Further up the river are Vicksburg 
and Memphis, which are important river ports. 



SOUTHERN STATES 165 

Other Seaports. — Not many large cities are found on 
the Gulf coast. One reason is that the entrances to the 
harbors are often blocked by sand-bars. Also, since there 
are so few people and cities inland, there is no reason for 
having many great cities on the coast. 

The largest seaport west of New Orleans is Galveston. 
What goods are probably shipped from this harbor? 
Remember the low coastal plains and the high dry plains 
to the west. 

Along the coast east of New Orleans are Mobile, a great cotton 
port, Tampa, and Pensacola, a lumber port. Why lumber? On 
the Atlantic coast are Jacksonville, the chief shipping port lor 
Florida oranges, Savannah, Charleston, and Wilmington. Find 
each of these and tell what state it is in. 




Fig. 147. 
Some of the Indians who live in Indian Territory. 

Oklahoma and Indian Territory. — A few years ago the section north 
of Texas, now called Indian Territory and Oklahoma, was known 
under the one naine of Indian Territory, a place set aside by our gov- 
ernment as a home foi some of the tribes of Indians. But later, these 
Indians were collected in the part now called Indian Territory ; then 
Oklahoma was opened up to white people for settlement. Now many 
thousands of white men are riving in the territory of Oklahoma. 



166 THE EABTH AS A WHOLE 

Climate. — The climate of the Southern states is so mild that many 
Northern people go South in winter to escape the cold. In the South- 
ern part it rarely snows, and flowers are in blossom in midwinter. 
Do you know why the song-birds of the North go there in winter? 

Review Questions. — (1) In which Southern and Northern states 
are the Appalachian Mountains found? (2) Tell what you can 
about the Southern plains. (3) Near what cities are coal and iron ore 
mined? (4) Name and describe the chief crop on the higher plains. 
(5) What is done with the cotton after it is picked? (6) What is 
the occupation of the people in western Texas ? Why ? Why so few 
towns there? (7) What two products are raised on the warm coastal 
plains and flood-plains? Describe each. (8) What fruits are raised 
in Florida? Why raised there? (9) What about the lumber indus- 
try? (10) Why should one expect to find much manufacturing there? 
(11) What kinds are there? (12) Why not more? (13) Why are 
there so few large cities? (14) Which is the largest of all? Why? 
(15) What goods reach this port? Why? (16) Name and locate 
the principal seaports. (17) Make a list of the Southern cities studied, 
and locate each. (18) Tell the direction of each from New Orleans. 
(19) Tell something about Indian Territory and Oklahoma. 

Suggestions. — (1) Draw the coast-line of these states. Add the 
rivers, the state boundaries, and principal cities. Put in the capitals. 

(2) Represent the group in sand, showing the mountains and plains. 

(3) Examine some cotton. Make a collection of articles made 
from cotton and add them to the school collection. (4) Inquire of 
your groceryman where his oranges and other fruits were grown. 
(5) Examine some rice. (6) You can plant and grow not only 
wheat, but rice, cotton, sugar-cane, and other plants in the schoolroom, 
especially if you can induce some one who has a hothouse to allow 
you to start them there. (7) Why is not New Orleans as large as 
New York? (8) How are the people of New England and those of 
the Southern states dependent upon each other in the work that they 
do? (9) Beginning with the New England states, name those thus 
far studied that have mountains in them. (10) Name and locate 
the chief cities in all these states. (11) Draw the entire Eastern 
coast-line, and put in the larger cities and rivers. 

For References, see page 259. 




Fig. 148. 




CENTRAL STATES 

EASTERN SECTION 

Scale of Miles 
"^ 5 25 tfO 75 160 20 

Capitals of States © Other Cities o 

o 

Sault Ste.lMane^^- 

A fl <31ie£°yg an THa 

mi nee 



Eau Claire ^ G ,i eet A BaT / 

WISC Q/N Sic* W 
jk I App e 

/ Oshku 

(Lata lVt»w< 



La Crosse 






S T7HON 



-£» 



^ 



Mam to woe 



AManistee 




West £ y> . 
iBay City. 



~ 



onji^/ WatejrtoAn }f JlwailkCC Y*Mu ske £ 0I j 



fq 



m o 



"Bay City 
Saginaw V loj L 
Port Huron^ 

Madison§\ I / "\ H r-nndlRaDidS^K-J-ansing La^.n/^ 

W> Racine i ij Granai*tap> p-~ St.CLaif/P 

' VllIC \1_ ---I ^ /Battle Creek I |) e trOiW.- 

.Iftockforcf W ^ Kalamazoo* Jackson* Ann A.rbor/1^ f 

EvanstoAJv H / _^/~-i- . 7"4 U A. * / \ ! v\ 




Islautlc 



Galesburg 

I IJ/UI N 

l.QuincyXpringfleld 

'). ® 
s Jacksonville 



llgin* \arll-ipAcn y^T Adrian* /^i. cfi "* X ILlalid ^ 

T5ua£^ J_X S ' <><* Fort Wayne Aj>^___!Z!ndlay . JfiSance*!^,,, l\ 

|l^P^^T>^ * Mansfield* T East Vot fl V 



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*Ea»t S/.LO lit 



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e<,ria ! >^MariOL 

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DVnville'll Auderscra 

*DecMur |) £ Ki?nmom 

ij.- j/ # In4H»fiap; 

'jA 1 fTerrepiute 




fadison 

■"jeffersonville/ 
New AlbanyV-' 



• Mansfield* T East 7n I , \l ~S 
Q (H X StejibenviUe|j \ 

■■L .'u T» iaSlesvilln 

*I>uyton \| 'Marietta 

\Chillicothe A Pa Aiersbiirg 
./Hamilton *\ t\ \ ^ a W 

Covlngip^s^orts^T^ (\ * VIRGINIA-' 



VOt -t Ohio 



^Charleston 



C$ 



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^/EvansVnie| r \^/Lo«iS^SJ e LeiJngtoii-i 

Hend/&sonyT 0w ' enstoro 

^^ammoSrfCg!£e 






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pp=S|*t\ BowUng ^.2cC3-^?iisiS2^ 






^ 



X 



d'J - Ljogit'ude Weit 



E .Kn^v.u ; x" y. c |aV,R- 



Fig. lis. 



XII. CENTRAL STATES 



Map Questions. — (1) Name the states in this group. (2) Which 
ones border on the Great Lakes? How can goods be shipped from 
them by water to New York? (3) Name the Great Lakes. Which 
is highest above the level of the ocean? Which is lowest? (4) Into 
what do they empty ? (See Fig. 123.) (5) What are the chief rivers 
in this group? (6) Into what do their waters empty? (See Fig. 124:, 
opposite p. 141.) (7) Which states drain mainly into the Missouri 
River? (8) Into the Mississippi ? (9) Into the Ohio ? (10) Which 
one into the Great Lakes? (11) Find Chicago. Can you think of 
any reason why it should be a great city — the greatest in this sec- 
tion? (12) In which of these states did Abraham Lincoln live? 

Raw Products. — This group of states has four cities 
larger than New Orleans, two that are almost as large, 
and several others that are not very much smaller. These 
facts tell us that there are many more people here than in 
the Southern states, 



and that the indus- 
tries must be far 
more extensive. Let 
us see what they are. 

The entire sec- 
tion, as you see, is 
mainly a great plain, 
whose soil is favor- 
able to farming. 

In the western part of Kansas, Nebraska, and the two 
Dakotas this plain is dry* like the western part of Texas, 




Fig. 149. 
A " bunch ,J of cattle on a farm in western Kansas^ 



168 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

The reason for this is that the winds from the Pacific 
Ocean lose their moisture as they pass eastward over the 
mountains, while those from the Gulf of Mexico and At- 
lantic rarely reach so far as this region. On that account 
the men of this section, as in western Texas, are princi- 
pally engaged in raising cattle (Fig. 156), sheep, and horses. 

The eastern part of the states from North Dakota to 
Texas has more rain ; and since the soil and climate are 
favorable, it is a great wheat region, the best in the entire 
country. 




Fig. 150. 

Harvesting wheat on one of the great wheat fields of the Red River Valley of 

North Dakota. 

In Kentucky, as in Virginia, tobacco is one of the most 
important products ; but in the Central states perhaps 
the most valuable farm crop is corn. A great deal of 
that grain is raised in every one of these states, although 
Iowa and Illinois produce the largest amounts. In many 
localities so much is raised that the cornfields extend as 
far as the eye can reach. 

In all of these states there is much stock, each farmer usually 
keeping a few horses, cattle, sheep, or hogs. Each state, likewise, 
produces wheat and other kinds of grain, as well as wool, hay, fruit, 
vegetables, and other crops. Ohio is especially noted for its sheep 
and wheat. 



CENTRAL STATES 



169 



Underneath the soil in several of the states, especially 
in Illinois, Ohio, and Indiana, coal is mined. Look on 




Fig. 151. 

Iron mining in the famous Mesabi district of Minnesota, where they shovel 
out car-loads of the ore with great steam shovels, as gravel is often 
shovelled. 

the map (p. 155) to see in what states coal occurs. In 
Ohio and Indiana, petroleum and natural gas are found. 
On the north- 




western shore of 
Lake Superior, 
in Minnesota, 
and also on the 
southern side, in 
Wisconsin and 
Michigan, iron 
ore is mined, as 
in Pennsylvania 
and Alabama. 
In fact, that re- 
gion produces 
more iron ore than any other in the world. A great 
quantity of copper is also mined in Michigan. 



Fig. 152. 
Make a list of the wheat-producing states. 



170 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



The northern parts of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michi- 
gan also have large forests, so that many kinds of lumber 
are secured from them. 

Now we know the principal raw products of the soil 
and mines of this region. We find cattle and sheep in the 
dry western section, wheat in the northwest and in Ohio, 
copper and iron ore along the shores of Lake Superior, 

lumber in the north, 
tobacco in the south, 
corn in the centre, 
and a vast amount of 
coal in several of the 
states. Many of the 
people of these states 
are engaged in ob- 
taining these raw 
products. 

The Manufacturing 
and Trade Centres. — 
From this it is easy 
to see the reason for 
so many people and 
great cities in this 
region. The statement was made at the beginning of this 
section that four cities here were larger than New Orleans, 
and several others about as large. Where should they be 
located ? Heretofore we have found the great cities where 
goods can be shipped by water; accordingly we would 
expect to find them either on the shores of the Great 
Lakes or along the Mississippi River and its tributaries. 

Let us study about some of these cities, starting first 
with Chicago. It is next to New York in size, and is 




Fig. 153. 
Market Street in the great city of Chicago. 



CENTRAL STATES 



171 



situated on the southwestern end of Lake Michigan in 
Illinois. It has water connections with New York City, 
as you know, and also with the cities along the St. Law- 
rence River ; for there is a canal leading from Lake Erie 
to Lake Ontario in order to avoid the Niagara Falls. 

Aside from that, since Lake Michigan extends so far south, the 
railways from the Dakotas, Minnesota, Wisconsin, northern Iowa, and 
Illinois must swing around this southern end in going east and south- 
east. This makes that point a great railway centre. 




Fig. 154. 
Cattle in the Chicago stock-yards. 

Milwaukee, farther north on the lake shore, is much 
smaller than Chicago, but it is one of the two cities nearly 
as large as New Orleans. 

What, now, are likely to be the industries of these two 
cities and the others along the Great Lakes. Quantities 
of the raw products named are sent to Chicago. It is the 
greatest meat-market in the world ; and cattle and sheep 
from the Western plains, and hogs from all over the Central 
states, are shipped to the Chicago stock-yards (Fig. 154), 



172 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

where thousands of men are employed in preparing them 
for food. The business of packing, canning, and shipping 
the meat requires a great number of workmen, and the 
tanning of the hides to make leather, which is done in 
Milwaukee, also keeps many men busy. 

Some of the wheat of the Dakotas and Minnesota is 
sent to Chicago and Milwaukee to be shipped or to be 
ground into flour for bread. The latter city has long been 
noted for its flour-mills. But there are also great flour- 
mills nearer the wheat fields. In southeastern Minnesota 




Fig. 155. 

St. Anthony Falls, in the Mississippi, around which Minneapolis has grown. 
These falls furnish power for a number of great flour-mills. 

are falls in the Mississippi River (Fig. 155) which furnish 
excellent water-power, so that flour-mills have been built 
there and the city of Minneapolis has grown up about 
them. 

Only a few miles away, at the head of navigation on the Missis- 
sippi, is St. Paul, which owes its growth partly to the fact that it is 
a centre for the sale of machinery, clothing, and other articles needed 
by the farmers who raise the wheat. Name some of the articles they 
need to buy. 

While much flour is made in the West, a great deal of the wheat 
is sent to Duluth, on the western end of Lake Superior, and there 
shipped over the Great Lakes, whence it goes to New York and even 
to Europe. Why should Duluth be selected? 



CENTRAL STATES 173 

Chicago lias no water-power for manufacturing, but it 
is the nearest lake port to the Illinois coal-fields, and draws 
upon them for fuel to produce steam for factories. Thus 
it is made a great centre for the manufacture of iron goods 
and furniture, receiving both iron ore and lumber in lake 
vessels. But the other lake ports share in this work, espe- 
cially the great cities of Cleveland, Detroit, and To- 
ledo, which are within easy reach of the raw products. 

Another important product that reaches Chicago is corn. There 
it is ground into corn-meal or made into hominy, starch, and other 
substances. So much corn and wheat are carried there that Chicago 
is a great grain as well as meat market. 

Locate the principal cities along the Great Lakes. Named in order 
of size they are Chicago, Cleveland, Detroit, Milwaukee, Toledo, and 
Duluth. In what state is each of these? Also find Saginaw and 
Grand Rapids, two important lumber-manufacturing cities. 

We said that the other great cities should be looked for 
upon the water ways formed by the Mississippi River and 
its largest tributaries. The greatest of these tributaries 
is the Missouri River, and a very large city, St. Louis, is 
situated near where it enters the Mississippi. 

St. Louis is connected with the country far to the 
northwest by the Missouri River; with Minneapolis by 
the Mississippi ; with Pittsburg by the Ohio ; and on the 
south with Memphis, New Orleans, and the ocean. Natu- 
rally, as people settled here, railways were built, until, 
like Chicago, it has become one of the great railway 
centres in the country. Like Chicago, also, it draws to 
itself all the products that have been named. 

Although a great many cattle and sheep reach St. Louis and Chi- 
cago, making them important meat-markets, many of these animals 
are slaughtered near the plains on which they are raised, and that 



174 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



fact explains the importance of Omaha and Kansas City. Both 
these noted meat-markets are on the Missouri River. Horses and wool 

are also shipped 
from these cities. 

Much wheat and 
corn are brought 
to St. Louis, mak- 
ing it an impor- 
tant grain -market. 
A great deal of to- 
bacco also goes to 
St. Louis ; but since 
Kentucky is the 
chief tobacco rais- 
ing state in the 
Mississippi Valley, 
its leading city, 
Louisville, is the great tobacco market of that section, as Richmond 
is for Virginia. It is also an important manufacturing centre. 




PRINCIPAL 

Cattle liaising Distr 

OF THE 

UNITED STATES 



Fig. 156. 



The manufacture of clothing is an important industry 
in Cincinnati on the Ohio River, and much machinery 
is made there from iron ore sent from Pennsylvania and 
West Virginia. Why from these states rather than from 
Lake Superior ? 

One of the largest cities in these Central states, Indian- 
apolis, the capital and largest city in Indiana, is located 
away from the great waterways. But it is in a rich farm- 
ing country, and as railways enter it from all directions, 
it has become the chief trade centre of that state. Colum- 
bus, the capital of Ohio, is another great trade centre. 

Locate the principal cities on the large rivers and tell 
for what they are important. Ranked in order of size they 
are, St. Louis, Cincinnati, Louisville, Minneapolis, Kansas 
City, and St. Paul. In which state is each of these ? 



CENTRAL STATES 175 

Review and Comparisons. — We have seen that the farm products 
and manufactures of the Central states are quite different from those 
of the Southern states. Make a list of these for each of the groups 
and compare them. Compare them in the same way with those of 
New England. With those of the Middle Atlantic states. Explain, 
as well as you can, the causes for these differences. 

Make a list of the six largest cities in each of these four groups of 
states. When in doubt as to whether one city is larger than another, 
look up the population in the tables on page 265. Add together the 
populations of each group of cities and compare the results. 

Review Questions. — (1) Describe the surface of the Central 
states. (2) What four states are dry in the western part? Why? 

(3) Compare the products of these with those, of western Texas. 

(4) Where is our greatest wheat region? (5) Where in this group of 
states are copper and iron ore mined? (6) Where is lumber found? 

(7) Tobacco? (8) Corn? (9) Coal? (10) For what products is 
Ohio noted? (11) Give some reasons why Chicago has become so 
great a city. (12) Also St. Louis. (13) Name and locate the chief 
cities along the Great Lakes, giving the main industries of each. 
(14) Do the same with the cities along the great rivers. (15) What 
was said about Indianapolis and Columbus? 

Suggestions. — (1) Draw the Mississippi River with its two main 
tributaries. Add to the drawing the Great Lakes and the Atlantic 
and Gulf coasts. Make a cross where each of the large cities is 
located, and write its name. (2) Find your own home on this map 
and notice its direction and distance from some of the large cities. 
(3) Add some wheat and corn to the school collection. (4) Grow some 
of each in the school. (5) Tell from what animals wool, beef, pork, 
mutton, lard, and leather come. (6) Find out about the buffalo and 
Indians that used to live on the plains. (7) Read about the early 
French explorers. About the pioneers who first settled these plains. 

(8) According to the scale of the map (Fig. 124) how does Kansas com- 
pare in size with Connecticut? (9) With the whole of New England ? 
(10) Estimate the entire length of the Mississippi River according 
to the scale on Fig. 124. (11) Draw a map of the Central states 
similar, to that of New England, and put in the capitals. 

For References, see page 259. 



XIII. WESTERN STATES 

Map Questions. — (1) In what directions do the mountains ex- 
tend? (2) iSTarue the principal ranges. (3) Which are the chief 
rivers? (4) Make a drawing of them. (5) In what sections do 
there seem to be few rivers ? (6) What does that suggest about rain- 
fall ? (7) Some rivers empty into lakes that have no outlet. What 
does that suggest? (See p. 55.) (8) How far is it across the United 
States from the northern to the southern boundary? (9) Measure 
the length of California. Compare its size with Pennsylvania; with 
Texas; with Massachusetts. (10) Compare the coast-line with that 
of New England. What does that suggest about harbors and cities? 
(11) Where are Denver and San Francisco ? 

Reasons why there are so Few People. — This group of 
states is much larger than either of the other four, form- 
ing about one-third of the entire United States. But 
they are thinly settled, having only about one-fourth as 
many people as the Southern states alone. Two divisions, 
Arizona and New Mexico, are still territories, like Okla- 
homa, because they have so few inhabitants. 

One reason they have so few people is that most of the 
early settlers came from Europe, and naturally located in 
the Eastern and Southern states. It was only after these 
parts were fairly well occupied that many people moved 
farther westward. 

Another important reason is the. mountainous condition 
of the country. Much of this section is a vast, dry pla- 
teau, usually more than a mile above the level of the sea. 
Extending across the plateau from north to south are 

176 




State Capitals'- ® 



115° Longitude \Test 110° from 

Fig. 157. 



WESTERN STATES 



177 



several great mountain ranges. The mountains along the 
Pacific coast are called the Coast Ranges, those in eastern 
California the Sierra Nevada, and those farther north, in 
Oregon and Washington, the Cascade Ranges. Far east 
of these long chains are others called the Rocky Mountains. 
All of these mountains together are known as the Western 
Cordilleras. 

The Cordilleras are far higher and steeper than the Appa- 
lachians in the East, and they are very rocky, so that farm- 




Fig. 158. 
A geyser in eruption in the Yellowstone National Park. 

ing is impossible on much of the land. Indeed, in many 
parts they are so rough that it is difficult to travel among 
them ; this is indicated by the name Rocky Mountains. 

Still another reason why there are so few people is that, 
even where the soil is fertile, the climate is usually too 
dry for farming, because the winds that reach it do not 
3arry much vapor. 



178 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 




Fig. 159. 

A view in the great Colorado Canyon, where the Colorado River flows in a 
deep gorge cut in the plateau to a depth of over a mile. 

Wonderful Scenery. — Some of the places in this section 
are among the most interesting in the world. For exam- 
ple, in northwestern Wyoming are hundreds of springs 
where the water is so hot that it boils. At some points 
boiling water and steam occasionally shoot upward with a 
roar, from holes in the ground, and rise frequently to a 
height of one or two hundred feet. These are called 
geysers (Fig. 158), and there are scores of them in this 
region. 

Here, too, is the Yellowstone River, whose waters tum- 
ble 308 feet in a single fall, which is nearly twice as high 
as the Niagara Falls in New York. In the deep gorge 
that the river has cut below the falls, the rocky banks are 



WESTERN STATES 



179 



in places fully one-fourth of a mile high and beautifully 
colored. Our nation has set aside this wonderful region 
as a park, naming it the Yellowstone National Park ; and 
each year hundreds of people travel there to see it. 

There are many other interesting places to visit in this 
western country ; but none are more wonderful than the 
Colorado Canyon (Fig. 159), an immense river valley cut 
in the rocks of the plateau, in places to a depth of over a 
mile. Trace its course on the map. 

Mining. — Although so rocky and so arid, there are 
some very important industries in the Western states ; 
and in order to find out what they are, let us first study 
the mountains. You remember that iron ore and coal are 
found in the Appalachians; do you remember in what 
states ? Some coal and iron ore are also mined in the 
Cordilleras ; but even more valuable minerals than these 
are found in the mountain rocks. 

In 1848 gold was discovered in 
California. Bits of this heavy metal 
lay in some of the stream beds, and 
could be obtained by carefully wash- 
ing the lighter dirt away (Fig. 160). 
News of the discovery quickly 
spread throughout the world, and 
men hastened to the gold fields by 
thousands. Ever since then Cali- 
fornia has been one of the leading 
states in the production of gold. 

There were no railways then in 
the West, so that some men from the East crossed the 
plains and mountains in wagons, in which they were in 

iger of being attacked by savage Indians ? others made 




Fig. 160. 
Miners washing, or ' pan- 
ning," gravel to see if 
there is any gold in it. 



180 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 






Lake Superior^ 
Irun District; 



XBlack mils 



the long journey in vessels. What route must they have 
taken? The best harbor on the Pacific coast was San 
Francisco Bay, where a small Spanish town had existed 
for years. Soon people crowded in so rapidly that the 
town of San Francisco became a great city and the chief 
trade centre in the West. 

The metal was also found under the soil in the midst of 
solid rock. Rock with gold in it is called gold ore, and 
must be crushed into fine bits before the gold can be 

collected. This 
requires much 
machinery, and 
is one of the im- 
portant parts of 
mining (Fig. 
22, p. 24). A 
great deal of 
this kind of ore 
is now mined in 
California. 

Gold is also 
found in Colo- 
rado, and many men have been attracted to that state, as 
formerly to California. Indeed more gold now comes from 
Colorado than from California. Denver, the largest city 
in Colorado, and Pueblo, owe their growth partly to the 
gold mines near them. Find these cities on the map. 

Silver is another precious metal mined in the West, and 
Colorado produces more of it than any other state. With- 
out doubt some of the gold and silver that you have seen 
came from the mountain rocks of California or Colorado, 
For what purposes are these metals used ? 




% >Vtk TGold Region 
~~T%-1 NX I f 

'"<?,?. ^ — fi- '__ 

/ A f- : /. Colorado 

' ^J _ ,UM i Silver 



■Arizona? 



Copper \ 
CHIEF 
Iron, Gold, Silver and 
Copper Districts 

OF THE 

EXITED STATES. 

CD Iron ^Gold & Silver 




Fig. 161. 
In what states is each found ? 



WESTERN STATES 



181 




Large quantities of both metals are also mined in the 
other states and territories of this section, especially in 
the Black Hills of South Dakota, in Montana, Nevada, 
and Utah. 

Much copper is mined in the West, especially at Butte, 
Montana, where the greatest copper mines in the world 
are situated, and 
in the territory of 
Arizona. Lead is 
a fourth impor- 
tant metal ob- 
tained from these 
Western states. 

Cities have 
grown up near 
some of these 
mines ; but there 
are many mines in the mountains far away from the cities. 
In some parts of the country travellers may see, from the 
car windows, scores of little tunnels dug into the sides of 
the mountains, by men who were hunting for ore. It 
is a hard, lonely life, and many find little ore ; but one 
occasionally makes a discovery that brings him a fortune. 

Ranching. — The mountains, therefore, are chiefly val- 
uable for their ores ; but the high plains and plateaus also 
have some worth. There is little rain upon them ; but, 
as in the western part of the two Dakotas, Nebraska, Kan- 
sas, and Texas, there is often grass enough for raising 
cattle, sheep, and horses. Many of the animals raised 
are finally shipped eastward to furnish meat, leather, and 
wool. In these states the cowboys live, spending most of 
their days upon their horseSo 



These piles of dirt and rock are the waste dumped 
aside by miners as they have dug into the earth 
for ore. 



182 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



The Desert. —In 

some parts of this 
dry, or arid, region 
there is so little rain 
that it is a true des- 
ert. One can travel 
for scores of miles 
and see scarcely any 
vegetation except- 
ing cactus, a little 
grass, and such 
plants as grow in 
arid regions. There 
are no trees ; there 
is no water ; in fact, 
there is little but 
sand and rock to be 
seen ! No wonder 
that many a family, 
with their horses or oxen, died of thirst and hunger in 
attempting to cross this desert waste in search of Cali- 
fornia gold fifty years ago. 

Irrigation. — However, by irrigation (see p. 48) parts 
of these deserts are changed into gardens. To irrigate 
the thirsty soil, which is usually fertile, men dig ditches 
and lead the water from streams that are fed by the rain 
and melting snow of the high mountains. 

The Mormons of Utah, a people who were driven out 
of the Eastern states many years ago, and who settled in 
that barren region, have changed the desert to a garden 
by means of irrigation. They have also built the beauti- 
ful Salt Lake City near Salt Lake ; and not far away 




Fig. 163. 

A western cowboy. 



WESTERN STATES 



183 



from this is Ogdex, a busy railway centre, where there 
are not so many Mormons. Find these places on the 
map. 

People living near the eastern base of the Rocky Moun- 
tains raise much of their food by the aid of irrigation. 
Near Denver is a great irrigation ditch leading from the 
mountains; and while the land just above the level of the 
ditch is fit for nothing bat grazing, that below it, which 
can be flooded with the water, produces excellent crops. 




Fig. 164. 

The desert of Utah, near Great Salt Lake, where there is no fresh water, 
where it rarely rains, and where there is very little vegetation. 

Irrigation is growing more common every year, and by 
the aid of it people often raise food for stock, as well as 
for themselves. They even build great reservoirs to col- 
lect the water for use in the summer (Fig. 49, p. 53) ; but 
most of this barren waste can never make good farm land, 
because there is not enough water. 

Fruit Raising. — We have been studying the moun- 
tains, high plains, and plateaus, finding mining and graz- 
ing to be the chief industries, with farming where the soil 
is irrigated. 



184 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 




Let us now examine the land nearer the coast. South- 
ern California also has an arid climate where farming 
cannot be carried on without irrigation. But since the 
climate of the region is warm, as in Florida, the fruits that 

grow in southern 
countries, such as 
oranges, lemons, 
peaches, olives, 
and figs, are easily 
raised. 

In the midst of 
this beautiful fruit 
country, where the 
climate is so fine, 
is the beautiful 
city of Los Ange- 
les, an important 
railway centre, sur- 
rounded by thriving towns and orange groves (Fig. 165). 
Everywhere in that vicinity the main work is fruit 
raising by aid of irrigation. Without it a piece of land 
produces no crops, while a well-irrigated orchard by its 
side thrives wonderfully well. Visitors are usually sur- 
prised to see such a striking difference. 

Industries along the Pacific Coast. — Farther north, 
toward San Francisco and beyond it, the rainfall is 
heavier ; but irrigation is necessary in many places. The 
most common fruits are grapes, plums, peaches, and apri- 
cots. Much wheat is also raised, and sheep are numer- 
ous. This is the country of "big trees," too, the largest 
in the world being found in the vast forests among the 
mountains. 



An orange grove near Los Angeles in Southern Cali- 
fornia, the irrigation ditch heing seen between 
the two rows of o ran ere trees. 



WESTEBN STATES 



185 



Still farther north, between Oregon and Washington, 
you will find a large river on the map. What is its name ? 
Here the moist winds from the ocean cause heavy rainfall, 
so that irrigation near the coast is unnecessary. On the 
mountain slopes are extensive forests, and there are large 
lumber mills, especially in Washington along Puget Sound. 
Find this sound (Fig. 124). 

In this section there are many cattle and sheep ranches, 
and quantities of wheat are raised. The raising of such 
fruits as peaches and apples is also an important industry. 
Salmon are abundant in the Columbia River, so that the 
fishing industry is 
important there, as 
at Gloucester, Mas- 
sachusetts. What 
kinds are caught 
there? (See p. 143.) 

The Cities of the 
Pacific Slope. — The 
largest city north 
of San Francisco is 
Portland, on a 
small branch of the 
Columbia River. 
It is situated about 
one hundred and 
twenty miles from 
the mouth of the 
Columbia, and can 
be reached by ocean vessels. The other cities are Tacoma 
and Seattle on Puget Sound, and Spokane, a manufac- 
turing centre, at the falls in the Spokane River. 




Fig. 166. 

One of the "big trees." Notice that through a 
hole cut in the trunk a large wagon can be 
driven. 



186 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

Comparing the Pacific with the Atlantic coast, one sees 
some striking differences. The Atlantic coast is low and 
extremely irregular, having many bays and fine harbors, 
with numerous great cities about them. But the Pacific 
coast has steep mountains in many places, and, except in 
the very north, is regular, having few fine harbors and 
large cities. . San Francisco is the most important, being 
larger than New Orleans. Los Angeles is twenty-five 
miles away from the coast; but Portland, Tacoma, and 
Seattle are all seaports. 

From the four coast cities and from Los Angeles, goods 
are shipped over the Pacific Ocean to Japan, China, Aus- 
tralia, and even around South America to the Atlantic 
coast. This is an important trade, but it is by no means 
so extensive as the ocean commerce of the Atlantic coast 
cities. The fact that we now control the Philippine and 
Hawaiian islands will cause this trade to increase ; and 
when a ship canal connecting the Atlantic and Pacific 
oceans is finished, there will be still more ocean commerce. 
Why? A cable has recently been laid from San Francisco 
to Manila by way of Honolulu. Of what benefit is it? 

At present the greater part of the products of the 
Western states, even of the coast cities, instead of being 
shipped by water, are sent eastward by rail. There are 
railway lines connecting each of the large Western cities 
with all portions of the Eastern states. 

Review Questions. — (1) Compare the size of this group of states 
with that of the other groups. (2) What about the number of people 
there? (8) Give three reasons why there are so few. (4) Name 
each of the mountain ranges, finding each on the map, Fig. 124. 
(5) Tell what a visitor may see in the Yellowstone Park. Where is 
it? (6) Where is San Francisco? What caused its early rapid 
growth ? (7) Where is Denver ? Give a reason for its importance. 



WESTERN STATES 187 

(8) What metals are obtained in the West? (9) Where is each found? 
(10) Tell what you can about each. (11) What is the principal in- 
dustry on the high plains and plateaus? Why? (12) Why cannot 
the whole desert be irrigated? (13) What city have the Mormons 
built? Where is it? (14) Where is Los Angeles? (15) What is 
raised near there ? Why ? (16) What is raised in other parts of 
California? (17) Name the products of Oregou and Washington, 
(18) Where is the chief city in Oregon ? Why there? (19) What are 
the chief cities in Washington ? (20) Name the cities on the Pacific 
coast having excellent harbors. Name several on the Atlantic. 
(21) How do the two coasts differ ? (22) Where are the products of 
the Pacific coast sent ? How ? 

(23) Make a list ot the principal cities studied in the United 
States. (24) In what direction is each from Chicago ? (25) Make 
a map of the United States, placing on it each of the states with their 
names. Put on the map the names of the capitals. (26) Which 
states have a seacoast ? 

Suggestions. — (1) Write a story describing a journey across the 
plains and mountains to California in the early days. (2) Make a 
list of articles made of gold; of silver; of copper; of lead. Collect 
some ores of these for the school. (3) What stories have you read 
about the life of cowboys? About the Western Indians? (4) Find 
out something about the Yosemite Valley. (5) Ask a storekeeper 
what California fruits he keeps. Find out what products of your 
county are shipped to other states or countries. (6) Visit a fish-mar- 
ket to see some salmon. Find a picture of one in the dictionary. 
(7) Add together the population of the five largest cities on the Pacific 
coast. Compare that number with the population of the five largest 
on the Atlantic coast. You will find a table giving population of 
cities on page 265. (8) Make a drawing of the Pacific coast, showing 
the cities. Add the rivers. (9) Find out what large animals live 
among the mountains. (10) What is the distance from San Francisco 
to New York ? (11) Past what cities must the waters of the Yellow- 
stone River run, in flowing to the Gulf of Mexico ? Through what 
states? (12) Ask the railroad agent in your town for illustrated 
circulars descriptive of western scenery, or write to San Francisco to 
the general offices of the different roads. 

For References, see page 260. 



XIV. ALASKA 

Alaska, which you see on the map (Fig. 123, opposite 
p. 140), although a part of the United States, is a great 
distance from us. Our country purchased this cold, bar- 
ren land from Russia. It is so far north that it is partly 
in the arctic zone, and many people thought that our 
government wasted the $7,200,000 that was paid for it. 




A street in Sitka, Alaska. 



Fig. 167. 

Although it is summer, notice the snow on the 
mountains. 



But Alaska has proved valuable in several ways. Dur- 
ing the last few years thousands of men have gone there in 
search of gold, just as years ago thousands rushed to Cali- 
fornia. You have probably heard of the famous Klon- 
dike region, where so much gold has been found. The 

188 



ALASKA 



189 



Klondike is a stream flowing into the Yukon River just 
east of the boundary line between Alaska and Canada. 
Find it. The Klondike region itself is in Canada. 



Much gold is also mined on the coast just north of Sitka, the 
capital of Alaska, and in other places as well. But the country is 
so far north that little food 
can be raised, and mining 
in many parts is not only 
difficult but dangerous. 

Much sealskin for cloaks 
and caps comes from Alaska. 
A few hundred miles south- 
west of the mouth of the 
Yukon River are the small 
Pribilof Islands, to which 
thousands of seals come 
every spring to rear their 
young. Seal hunters are 
allowed by the government 
to capture some of these for 
their fur, which is warm 
and beautiful, but very ex- 
pensive because the animals 
are not abundant. 

There are great forests in some parts of Alaska, and the fishing is 
good. Not only is Alaska valuable at present, but it will probably be 
even more valuable in the future. 




Fig. 168. 

Some of the fur-seal on the Pribilof 
Islands. 



Review Questions." — (1) "Where is Alaska? (2) In what zones? 
(3) How did we obtain it? (4) What is done there? 

Suggestions. — (1) Draw the Yukon River. (2) Measure its 
length and compare it with that of the Mississippi. (3) How does 
the coast compare with that of California? Of Maine? (i) Read 
something about the fur-seal. Examine some fur. (5) Find out 
something about a journey to the Klondike. 

For References, see page 260. 



XV. CANADA AND OTHER COUNTRIES NORTH 
OF THE UNITED STATES 

Map Questions. — (1) How far are Detroit, Buffalo, and Chicago 
from Canada? (See map opposite p. 167.) (2) What Falls in the 
river which connects Lakes Ontario and Erie? (3) What effect have 
they upon shipping? (4) In what part of Canada would you expect 
to find most of the people? Why? (5) What large bay in north- 
eastern Canada? (See map opposite p. 140.) (6) What can you say 
about the climate of the country north of this? (7) Which of the 
Great Lakes is entirely within the United States? (8) Into what 
large river do the Great Lakes empty? 

Canada and Newfoundland 

Industries. — Canada is a British colony ; and New- 
foundland and Labrador also belong to England, but are 
separate from Canada. 

Much of this region is cold and bleak ; but the south- 
ern part resembles the northern United States in climate 
and soil, so that the products on the two sides of the 
boundary may be expected to correspond. 

Fishing was found to be an important industry along 
the New England coast (p. 143) ; so it is, also, in Nova 
Scotia and Newfoundland. 

Maine in the East and Washington in the West are cov- 
ered with vast forests. Forests extend into Canada, cover- 
ing a large part of it, and in fact they reach northward 
for several hundred miles until the climate becomes so 
cold that trees can no longer grow, 

190 



COUNTRIES NORTH OF UNITED STATES 



191 



New York and Ohio are noted for their fruit, dairying, 
and farming. Ontario, or that part of Canada just north 
of these states, has the same products. 

The best wheat fields in the United States are in Min- 
nesota and the two Dakotas ; so Manitoba is the best 
wheat region in Canada. And since the dry plains of 
the Far West also extend into Canada, cattle and sheep 
raising are important industries on the plains of western 
Canada, even to the base of the Rocky Mountains. 

The western mountains of the United States contain 
much gold, silver, and other metals ; it is the same with 
the mountains of Canada. The Klondike region should 
be remembered as a part of Canada, although it was men- 
tioned in connection with Alaska. (See p. 188.) 

Since we know the principal products, let us locate the 
chief lines of transportation and cities. Canada, like the 
United States, 
has a water- 
route to the 
ocean. This is 
partly along the 
Great Lakes 
and partly along 
the St. Law- 
rence River, one 
of the great riv- 
ers of the con- 
tinent ; but in 
some places, as at Niagara, it is necessary to pass for short 
distances through canals. One of the largest of these is 
the Welland Canal, which connects Lakes Erie and On- 
tario. Point it out on the map opposite page 167, 




Fig. 169. 

The Lachine Rapids on the St. Lawrence, just ahove 
Montreal. There is one place down which a steamer 
can come ; hut no vessel can go up the rapids. Do 
you see how this has helped to determine the loca- 
tion of Montreal ? 



192 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 




Cities. — The eastern part of Canada is most thickly 
settled, like the eastern part of the United States, and for 
the same reasons. What are the}" ? Along the water- 
route just mentioned are some very large cities, as in the 

United States. The 
largest is Montre- 
al, which is nearly 
as large as New Or- 
leans. Like that city, 
Montreal is situated 
on a river at a point 
where ocean vessels 
can reach it. Far- 
ther down the St. 
Lawrence is the old 
city of Quebec, 
founded man}" years 
ago by the French. Ottawa, the capital, is west of 
Quebec, on Ottawa River, and Toronto is across Lake 
Ontario from Niagara Falls. Find all these (Fig. 123). 

As there is much water-power and coal in eastern Can- 
ada, there is a great deal of manufacturing in the cities, 
especially in Montreal and Toronto. 

The cities not on this water-route are smaller. Halifax, in Nova 
Scotia, has an excellent harbor. VTixxipeg, the main city in the 
wheat region of Manitoba, is connected ■with the Pacific coast at Van- 
couver and the Atlantic at St. Johx by the great Canadian Pacific 
Railway. From Vancouver and Victoria, as from Seattle, Tacoma, 
Portland, and San Francisco, goods are shipped to Australia and Asia. 

The Far North. — In the vast forests of northern Canada live 
few other people than hunters, trappers, and Indians. 

Along the northern coast are found scattered groups of Eskimos, 
who get their living almost entirely from the sea. Their food is 



Fig. 170. 

Waterfall at Ottawa. The city is seen behind 
the fall. How has the fall helped to deter- 
mine the location of Ottawa? 



COUNTRIES NORTH OF UNITED STATES 



193 



obtained from the seal, walrus, polar bear, and reindeer ; their clothes, 
summer tents, and boats are made from the skins of these animals; 
and their oil for light and heat 
during the long winter night 
also comes from them. Their 
winter houses are snow huts, 
and long journeys over the ice- 
covered seas are made on sledges 
drawn by wolf -like dogs. 



Islands North of 
North America 

The islands north of North 
America are desolate lands. In 
winter the sea is frozen ; and 
even in summer floating ice is 
usually in sight. Some of the 
ice is that which has frozen on 
the surface of the sea during the 
winter; but rising above this 
are many great blocks of ice, or 
icebergs, sometimes two hundred 
or three hundred feet in height. 
They have broken off from the 
streams of ice, called glaciers, 
that move down from the land and 





: ^e«igll^^&& 



Fig. 172. 
An iceberg from the great Greenland glacier. 



Fig. 171. 

An Eskimo boy from Baffin Land, 
dressed in his summer furs. 

enter the sea. The immense island 
of Greenland is almost all 
covered by such glaciers. 
No land canbe seen except- 
ing near the coast, where 
some Eskimos live and 
a few Europeans, called 
Danes, from Denmark. 
The island belongs to the 
Danes, who purchase skins, 
oil, etc., from the Eskimos. 



194 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



Review Questions. — (1) Show how the products of Canada 
correspond with those of northern United States. (2) Where is the 
St. Lawrence River? Walk in the direction in which it flows. 
(3) Where does the water come from? (4) Through what waters 
must a vessel pass in going from Duluth to the Gulf of St. Lawrence 




Fig. 173. 

Cutting ice from the St. Lawrence River opposite Montreal. What effect 
should you think this thick ice would have on the commerce of Montreal? 

and the ocean? (5) Name and locate the chief cities along this route. 
(6) Where is the largest city? Why there ? (7) Where is Ottawa? 
Halifax ? (8) Name two cities on the western coast. (9) Tell about 
the people living in northern Canada. (10) How T are icebergs caused? 
(11) Make a drawing of the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River, 
putting in the cities. 

Suggestions. — (1) What difficulty do you see in building the 
Welland Canal? How is it overcome? (2) What difficulties should 
you think the Canadian Pacific Railway would have in running 
trains in winter? (3) Why is not Hudson Bay an important outlet 
for goods by water from Canada? (4) How can you explain the 
fact that there are no large cities along the great Mackenzie River? 
(5) Find out something about Quebec. (6) Write a story about 
the Eskimos. (7) Collect pictures of scenes in Canada. (8) Read 
Longfellow's poem, " Evangeline " ; the land of Evangeline is in Nova 
Scotia. 

For References, see page 260. 



XVI. COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED 

STATES 



Map Questions. — (1) What does the map (Fig. 123, opposite 
p. 140) tell you about the highlands and lowlands in Mexico ? (Notice 
the rivers.) (2) Find the capital of Mexico. (3) Why is Central 
America a fitting name for the region southeast of Mexico ? (4) Point 
toward Cuba. (5) How far is Havana from Florida? From New 
Orleans? (6) What large islands in the West Indies? In what zone 
are they ? (7) What large peninsulas are in Mexico ? 

Mexico and Central America. — As Canada is colder than 
the United States, so the countries south of us may be ex- 
pected to be warmer. 
Notice that a large 
part of Mexico is 
south of the Tropic 
of Cancer and that 
Central America is 
entirely south of it. 

Near the seacoast 
of Mexico the land 
is low and the cli- 
mate hot ; but in the 
interior are many 
mountains and broad, 
arid plateaus. They 
are a continuation of those in our Western states, and are 
so high that the climate is cool. 

195 




Fig. 174. 

Popocatepetl, an extinct volcano, not far from 
Mexico City, and one of the highest moun- 
tain peaks on the continent. Notice that 
the top is white with snow, although in the 
torrid zone. 



196 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



Some of the highest mountain peaks are old volcanoes made of lava 
that has poured forth from the earth. These peaks are so high that 
they are always covered with snow, in spite of the fact that they are 
in the torrid zone. 

With such a variety of climate we shall of course find a 
variety of products. Much of the mountain region is too 

cold and rocky 
for farming ; 
but, as in Col- 
orado, these 
mountains yield 
valuable metals, 
especially sil- 
ver. 

Part of the 
Mexicanplateau 
is dry, like west- 
ern Texas and 
some of the 
other Western 
states. Name some of them. Like these, its value con- 
sists largely in wild grass, on which great herds of cattle, 
sheep, and horses feed. Of what use are these animals ? 
In other parts of the plateau there is enough rainfall 
for farming ; but in most places crops can be raised by 
the aid of irrigation only. 

Along the lowlands of the coast, the rainfall is heavy, 
and the products are much the same as on the low, damp 
plains of our own Southern states. What are they ? (See 
pp. 160 and 162.) Besides these, much coffee is grown on 
the slopes between the coastal plain and the high plateau. 
Have we found that product before in North America ? 




Fig. 175. 
A street in a Mexican town. 



COUNTRIES SOUTH OF UNITED STATES 197 

There is very little manufacturing in these countries, for two rea- 
sons. One is that coal is lacking. Why is that a good reason? The 
other is that many of the people are too ignorant to manage machinery. 

The Spaniards once owned this part of North America, and their 
language is still spoken there. Most of the people living in Mexico 
and Central America are either pure Indians, or else Spaniards with 
Indian blood in their veins, called half-breeds. Only about one man 
in six is a full-blooded Spaniard. 

Mexico is now a republic, like the United States, and 
its capital is the city of Mexico. The coast on the east 
is regular, as you can see, so that there are few harbors. 
Vera Cruz is the chief port, but the harbor is poor. 

Central America is made up of several republics, each 
having a capital of its own. Many of the people are very 
ignorant, and there are frequent revolutions, when ambi- 
tious generals try to overthrow the government. 

At the present time Central America and the Isthmus of Panama 
are of interest because a canal is being dug there, to save vessels the 
long journey around South America. Examine the map (Fig. 120, 
opposite p. 137) to see how much distance will be saved in this way 
between New York and San Francisco. In Central America are dense 
tropical forests from which hard woods, dyes, rubber, and other valua- 
ble products are obtained. 

The West Indies and Bermuda. — Besides the countries on 
the mainland of the continent there are numerous islands, 
some of which form an archipelago called the West Indies. 
They are really the highest parts of mountain ranges pro- 
jecting above the sea and so arranged as to separate the 
Caribbean Sea from the Gulf of Mexico and from the At- 
lantic Ocean. All of them have a tropical climate. 

The largest island is Cuba, where sugar, tobacco, and 
tropical fruits, such as bananas, are raised. Havana is its 
capital and largest seaport. Cuba belonged to Spain until 



198 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 




our recent war with Spain, and so did Porto Rico, which 
now belongs to the United States. 

The other large islands are Jamaica, belonging to England, and 

Haiti, where there are two 
negro republics. The large 
•islands are called the Greater 
Antilles ; and the small is- 
lands, extending in a chain 
from near Porto Rico to the 
South American coast, are 
called the Lesser Antilles. 
These belong to England, 
France, and other European 
nations. 

Off the eastern coast of 
Florida are the low Bahama 
Islands ; and in the open 
Atlantic, far to the north- 
east of these, is a tiny clus- 
ter called the Bermuda Islands. Both belong to England, and are 
made of coral sand, as described on page 135. 

Review Questions. — (1) Tell about the climate and relief of 
Mexico. (2) About the industries. (3) About the inhabitants. 
(4) What cities are there? (5) For what is Central America espe- 
cially important at present? (6) Tell what you can about the West 
Indies. (7) The Bahamas. (8) The Bermudas. 

Suggestions. — (1) What reason can you see for digging the Nica- 
ragua Canal at the place where it is shown on the map? (2) Why 
are there no large rivers in Mexico? (3) Find out about the Panama 
Canal. (4) Tell some of the events that happened in Cuba during 
our war against Spain. (5) Find out what you can about Cuba; 
about Porto Rico. (6) In what time of year would it be best for 
people to visit these islands? (7) Why can potatoes, onions, and 
other vegetables be grown in Bermuda so early as to reach us in 
March ? (8) Ask some one who has been to the Bermuda or Bahama 
Islands to tell you what he saw there. 

For References, see page 260. 



Fig. 176. 

A field of Easter lilies in the Bermuda Is- 
lands, where these lilies are raised for 
export to the United States at Easter. 




Fig. 177. 



XVII. SOUTH AMERICA 



Map Questions. — (1) Compare the shape of South America 
with that of North America. (2) What great mountain ranges are 
there along the western side ? (3) "Which part of South America has 
no cold winter? (i) Which part has a climate much like that where 
you live? (5) What is the name of the longest river? (6) Where 
do you expect to find the most fertile regions ? (7) Name the coun- 
tries of South America. 

Relief. — Great mountain chains were found in the 
western part of North America. What are their names ? 
Through what countries 
do they extend? In 
South America there are 
also high mountains on 
the western side, called 
the Andes. The peaks 
of the Andes are higher 
than those in the United 
States, and there are 
many active volcanoes 
among them (Fig. 12). FlG 178 




Two tunnels on a railway line that crosses 
the high Andes of Peru. 



Besides the Andes, the 
map shows a highland re- 
gion in eastern Brazil and a smaller one between the Amazon and 
Orinoco rivers, forming the divide between them. 

The remainder of South America is mainly lowland, drained by 
three mighty rivers. What are their names ? Where does each rise ? 
In what direction does each flow ? Which drains the longest slope ? 

199 



200 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

Climate. — The products of the three valleys greatly 
depend upon their climate ; let us, therefore, see how 
much heat and moisture they have. 

Where does the equator cross the continent? Where 
does the tropic of Capricorn cross it ? How much of 
the continent, then, is in the torrid zone ? Where is the 
coldest part ? In which zone ? 

From this we see that much more than half the 
continent must have a warm climate ; but that the south- 
ern part has a temperate climate more like our own. In 
which months does summer come to this region ? 

As for the moisture in the torrid or tropical part of 
South America the rains are very heavy. The reason 
for this is that the air becomes heated and is thus made 
very light ; it is then forced to rise to such a height that 
the vapor is condensed, causing heavy showers. (See 

P. 77.) 

There is less rainfall in the south temperate zone, and 
still less in the narrow strip west of the central part of 
the Andes, in Chile and Peru. There the climate is quite 
arid because the principal winds are from the south and 
east, so that the air loses its vapor in passing over the 
mountains and descends upon the Pacific slope as dry, 
parching winds. 

History. — Knowing now the chief facts about the 
relief and climate, let us look at the countries themselves. 
After the discovery of South America by Columbus the 
Spaniards settled in many parts, obtaining great quanti- 
ties of gold and silver, especially in the Andes. Nearly 
all of South America once belonged to Spain, excepting 
Brazil, which was settled and for a long time owned by 
the Portuguese. Although the South American coun- 



SOUTH AMERICA 



201 



tries are now independent nations, the Spanish language 
is still spoken nearly everywhere excepting in Brazil. 

Brazil. — This is the largest country, being even larger 
than the United States without Alaska ; but it has only 
about one-fourth as many inhabitants. Much of the 
great Amazon valley consists of forest-covered plains, 
called silvas, in which the trees are so close together, and 
there is such a mat of vines and underbrush, that it is 



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i - 


*V."'\ 


\ V .. 




3 \ _ £» ^ 




a ■■..'"' 


_ 




m 




55e» ; 








f K 7 "' 


"\ - ' ■' ' 


; :- 


•" -r^"?--^ 


'.■; '".'■ I.ir./V*;'"','-". 



Fig. 179. 
A path through the dense tropical forest of South America. 



extremely difficult for one to make his way through. 
From what was just said about the climate, you may be 
able to give the reason for such rank growth. 

You will find pictures of some of the wild forest ani- 
mals in Fig. 109, page 131. What are their names? 

Of course this forest is not a good home for men, 
especially since much of the land is frequently flooded ; 
in fact, Indians are almost the only people living there. 



202 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

They make a living by hunting, fishing, and selling rub- 
ber from the rubber tree that grows in the woods. 

Rubber is obtained by cutting a hole in the bark and 
catching the milky fluid that flows forth. After being 
warmed over a fire to make it more solid, it is sent down the 
river in boats to Para and then shipped to many parts 
of the world. Bicycle tires and overshoes are made from 
it. See how long a list of other rubber articles you can 
name. 

Another common tree is the cocoa tree, on which grow 
the beans from which cocoa and chocolate are made. It 
is difficult to travel in this great wilderness, where the 
rivers are almost the only roadways. 

Most of the inhabitants of Brazil live in the eastern 
part along the coast. Some of them are white people, 
but many are either Indians or negroes, or of mixed 
blood, as in Mexico. You will notice several cities on 
the coast, of which Rio de Janeiro, the capital, is the 
largest, being about twice the size of New Orleans. It 
has a splendid harbor. 

There must certainly be some important industries in 
this region to cause a city to become so large. Besides 
the raising of cattle upon the plateau of eastern Brazil, 
farming is an important industry there. The principal 
crops are the same as those already found in warm coun- 
tries ; namely, cotton, sugar, tobacco, and coffee. The 
last is most important, and Rio de Janeiro is one of the 
chief export towns, which is the reason why some of our 
coffee is called Rio coffee. 

Venezuela and Guiana. — North of Brazil is Venezuela, 
which includes most of the Orinoco valley. Here are 
broad plains, called llanos, which produce excellent grass, 



SOUTH AMERICA 



203 




Fig. 180. 

Native Indian women washing clothes in Vene- 
zuela. Do you see in the picture any reason 
for thinking it is warm there? 



so that cattle raising is one of the important industries. 

Coffee and cocoa 

are also raised. 

The capital and 

largest city is 

Caracas, which 

is located several 

miles from the 

coast upon land 

more than half a 

mile above the sea. 

What advantage 

do you see in such 

a position? 

Just north of the mouth of the Orinoco River is Trini- 
dad Island, which belongs to Great Britain. On that 
island is a great pitch lake, from which much of the 
asphalt used in our street pavements is obtained. 

All of the countries of South America are republics 
excepting Guiana, east of Venezuela, which belongs to 
three European nations. What are their names ? And 
what is the capital of each section of Guiana ? The prod- 
ucts of these countries are much the same as those of 
Brazil and Venezuela. 

La Plata Countries. — The country south of Brazil, 
drained by the Plata River and its tributaries, is one of 
the most productive parts of South America. Here, at 
the mouth of the Plata River in Argentina, is Buenos 
Aires, the largest city on the continent. Across the 
wide river mouth is Montevideo, another large city, 
in Uruguay. What other small country lies between 
Argentina and Brazil ? 



204 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

The plains in this section of the country are called 
pampas ; and because of their excellent grass one of the 
chief industries is ranching. Since most of the country 
is in the temperate zone, corn and wheat are important 
farm products ; and in the warm northern part, near the 
tropics, tobacco and sugar-cane are raised. This is the 
part of South America that most nearly corresponds in 
climate and products to the United States. 




Fig. 181. 
A scene on the pampas of Argentina. 

Goods are still carried upon the rivers in Argentina, 
but there are also many railways in that country, — more, 
in fact, than in any other part of South America. 

Andean Countries. — The countries in the western part 
of South America are very mountainous, since each of 
them includes a part of the Andean chain. As you might 
expect, then, one of the principal industries is mining ; 
and immense quantities of gold and silver have been 
found there. What are the names of these countries ? 

Observe that most of the cities are not upon the coast. 
This is partly because they have grown up in the mining 



SOUTH AMERICA 



205 



districts among the mountains, and partly because there 
are so few good harbors. Many of the cities away from 
the coast have seaports, as Oallao in Peru, the seaport 
of Lima. Find others. 

Valparaiso, in Chile, is the largest port on the Pacific 
coast ; but Santiago, the capital, situated fifty miles 
inland, and about one-half mile above the sea, is more 
than twice as large. Notice how long and narrow Chile 
is ; what reason can you give for that ? 




Fig. 182. 
A scene among the lofty, snow-capped mountains of Chile. 

Farming is possible in the northern part of the western 
coast, where the rainfall is heavy ; but farther south, as 
in Peru and northern Chile, agriculture is impossible with- 
out irrigation. In southern Chile, however, the rainfall 
is moderate, and many people have settled there because 
the farming and grazing are excellent. 

Which of the Andean countries has no seacoast? Is 
that a disadvantage? Ecuador is the Spanish word for 
Equator. Why is that a fitting name for the country ? 
Colombia and Panama have seacoast on the two oceans 
and the latter includes the Isthmus of Panama. What 



206 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

cities do you find on the two sides of the Isthmus ? They 
are to be connected by a canal. Why is this important? 

Review Questions. — (1) Describe the highland regions of South 
America. (2) What three great valleys are there ? (3) In what 
zones are the different parts of the continent? (4) Which is the rainiest 
region? Why? (5) What about the rainfall elsewhere ? (6) Com- 
pare Brazil with the United States in size and number of inhabitants. 
(7) Tell about the silvas and the valuable products obtained from 
them. (8) Where are the chief cities in Brazil ? Which is the largest ? 
(9) Name the main industries in that section. (10) Where is Vene- 
zuela. (11) Tell about the industries there. (12) Where is Cara- 
cas? (13) For what is Trinidad noted? (14) Which is the most 
productive part of South America? What are the products? 
(15) Name and locate the largest city on the continent. (16) Name 
the countries along the western side of South America. (17) Why 
are most of the cities not directly on the coast? (18) Which is the 
largest port? (19) What are the products of these countries ? 

Suggestions. — (1) Draw the outline of South America. Put in 
the drawing the mountains, chief rivers, and cities. Add the country 
boundaries. (2) Make a sand model of the continent, showing the 
highlands and lowlands. (3) What large cities were found in the 
interior of North America? How about South America in that 
respect? What are the causes for the difference? (4) Brazil is in 
the torrid zone, while the United States is in the temperate zone. 
Which country has the advantage in temperature? Why? (5) AY rite 
a story telling of a journey by land and river from the mouth of the 
Orinoco to the mouth of the Plata. (6) Find some pictures from 
South America and add them to the school collection. (7) Read 
something about coffee raising. Read about Pizarro. About Boli- 
var. (8) From the table on page 268 find the five largest cities in 
South America. Add the populations together and compare the result 
with the total of the five largest cities in North America (see p. 264). 

For References, see page 260. 



XVIII. EUROPE 

Map Questions. — (1) On page 132 it was stated that Eurasia con- 
sisted of two continents, Europe and Asia. Trace the boundary line 
between them, naming the mountains and waters that form it. 
(2) One of the seas has no outlet; which one is it? What kind of 
water would you expect to find in that sea? (3) How does the coast- 
line of Europe compare with that of South America? Of North 
America? (4) Would you expect to find many good harbors? 
(5) Name the largest peninsulas and draw an outline map to show 
them. (6) Where are the highest mountains? (7) One of the 
Alpine peaks is Mt. Blanc. What have you already learned about 
it? (See p. 21.) (8) Where are the plains? Which very large 
country is made up mainly of plains ? Find Sicily and Sardinia. 
(9) In what zones is Europe. (10) How do you think its climate 
would compare with that of the United States? (11) With what 
European country have we recently been at war? (12) What other 
countries in Europe do you know something about? (13) By what 
route would you go from New York to one of them ? (See Fig. 120.) 

Europe is only a little larger than the United States 
with Alaska, but contains more than five times as many 
inhabitants, who are separated into a score of nations, 
with a different language for nearly every one. 

I. The British Isles. — The people in Europe to whom 
we are most closely related live on the small group of 
islands, called the British Isles, which lie just west of 
the mainland. This is often called our "mother coun- 
try." Can you tell why? 

There are two islands, Ireland and Great Britain ; what 
are the names of the three parts of Great Britain ? 

207 



208 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



On these islands are fine harbors and many great cities, 
London, in the southern part of England, on the Thames 
River, being the largest city in the world. Let us see 
what the people do. 

Judging from their position one might expect these islands to be 
too cold for agriculture, for they are farther north than the mouth of 

the St. Lawrence 
River; but the cli- 
mate is no colder 
than that of the 
northern United 
States. The reason 
for this is that the 
western coast of 
Europe is warmed 
by a broad cur- 
rent, or drift, of 
warm o cean 
water, known as 
the Gulf Stream, 
which flows north- 
east in the Atlan- 




Fig, 



London bridge, across the Thames, over which a busy 
throng is almost constantly passing. 



tic Ocean from the warm southern seas. The air over it becomes 
warmed; and, since the winds of Europe blow chiefly from the west, 
they carry this warmth with them and produce a climate much milder 
than one would otherwise expect. 

Wales and most of Scotland are too hilly to be well 
suited to agriculture ; but many sheep and cattle are 
raised. In England there is much more farming, and hay 
is one of the chief crops, since the damp air and the rain 
cause the grass to grow well. This is a reason, also, why 
sheep are raised in great numbers. 

But agriculture and stock raising are not the chief 
occupations. Having much wool, the people long ago 



EUROPE 209 

learned to make woollen cloth. In addition to that, they 
purchased cotton from distant countries, — as New Eng- 
land does to-day from the Southern states, — and made 
cotton goods. Thus extensive manufacturing industries 
have been developed, which have been made possible 
because of the vast beds of coal found there, as in Penn- 
sylvania, Illinois, and neighboring states. 

The centre for this manufacturing is Manchester, and 
the nearest port is Liverpool, thirty-five miles away. 
Recently a ship canal, called the Manchester Canal, has 
been built, connecting these two cities. Find them. 

The coal has helped to make another great industry 
possible. Beds of iron ore occur in England, and by 
the use of coal it is made into iron and steel, especially 
at Birmingham, which is the greatest centre for iron 
manufacturing in Great Britain. Where else have we 
found a city called Birmingham ? What can you tell 
about it ? 

The lowland portion of Scotland, about Edinburgh 
and Glasgow, is likewise noted for its cotton and wool- 
len factories, and for its iron manufacturing. Glasgow 
is the greatest centre for steel shipbuilding in the world. 
What city in the United States is noted for shipbuild- 
ing? 

Great numbers of people are employed in all this work, 
so that enough cloth, knives, needles, engines, and so' forth 
are made to supply many parts of the world. 

Ireland is not so much interested in manufacturing, al- 
though linen is an important product, being manufactured 
especially at Belfast. It is really to a great extent a 
farm for the English, furnishing them butter, eggs, pota- 
toes, and also meat. The air is so moist that the grass 



210 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 




Fig. 185. 
Thatched cottages in Ireland. 



is kept fresh and green, and on that account Ireland is 

often called the Emerald (or Green) Isle. The two largest 

cities are naturally 
on the side next to 
England. What are 
their names? 

So many manu- 
factured goods must 
be shipped away 
from Great Britain, 
and so much food 
imported, that the 
shipping business is 
very important. For 
this reason there are 
many skilful sailors 

in Great Britain, and that nation has more ships upon the 

sea than any other in the world. 

Having so many ships, the British have been led to explore coun- 
tries in all parts of the world. Whenever they discovered new lands, 
they laid claim to them in the name of their government, and in that 
way England has come into possession of Canada, Australia, India, 
several large countries in Africa, and scores of islands. These are called 
colonies, and the British have more of them than any other nation in 
the world. Indeed, these colonies cover one hundred times as much 
surface as the British Isles and have ten times as many inhabitants. 

London, the capital and the central port for vessels, 
has an excellent harbor on the Thames River, where hun- 
dreds of ships can be accommodated at one time. 

Great Britain and Ireland, together with their many 
colonies, form the British Umpire. Its government, un- 
like our own, is a monarchy ; but it is very liberal, and 



EUROPE 



211 



as in our own country, the people have an important share 
in the making of laws. 

II. Norse Countries. — Sweden and Norway. These 
two countries together occupy the Scandinavian peninsula, 
and are about as far north as southern Greenland. Were 
it not for the Gulf Stream, which flows past Norway, this, 
like Greenland, might be a barren, frozen country. As it 
is, however, many people live there. 




Fig. 186. 
The Thames River and Windsor Castle, where Queen Victoria resided. 

As in Scotland, most of the country is too hilly and 
rocky for farming, although some grain, cattle, and sheep 
are raised, especially on the lower land of southern Sweden 
along the Baltic. Few people live in the highlands, and 
about one-fourth of Norway is covered by forests. 

The coast is very irregular, and many deep, narrow bays, or fjords, 
reach into the land, making fine harbors. As a result, Norwegians 
and Swedes are skilful sailors. In the early days these Northmen 
were the best sailors in the world, and they came to the American 
shores long before Columbus discovered America. Fishing for cod 
and herring is now one of their important industries. 



212 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



The principal cities are Stockholm and Christiania. 
Find each. They are the capitals of Sweden and Norway, 

but the entire peninsula 
is ruled by one king, 
the government being a 
monarchy. 

Denmark, just south 
of Norway and Sweden, 
is inhabited by people 
similar to those in Scan- 
dinavia; in fact, these 
three are often called 
the Norse nations, or the 
nations of the Northmen. 




Fig. 187. 
One of the deep, narrow fjords of Norway. 



The Danes, also, have been great sailors, and now have possession 
of Iceland arid the west coast of Greenland. Their country presents 
a very different appearance from Norway and Sweden, for the land is 
low and level, and farm- 
ing is the occupation of 
about one-half the peo- 
ple. Fishing is also an 
important industry. 

The government 
is a monarchy, the 
capital and largest 
city being Copen- 
hagen, situated on 
an island. 

III. Russia.— The 
Russian Empire not 
only includes great plains in Europe, but extends sev- 
eral thousand miles beyond the Ural Mountains to the 




Fig. 188. 
Danish women selling fish. 



EUROPE 213 

eastern coast of Asia ; it is larger than the whole of the 
continent of North America and contains a greater num- 
ber of inhabitants. 

Most of Russia in Europe is a level country. The northern part, 
like northern Norway, is in the frigid zone, and so far away from the 
Gulf Stream that the climate is extremely cold. The plains there, 
called tundras, are too cold for trees, and the frost never leaves the 
ground except at the very surface in summer. Nevertheless, a moss 
flourishes and supports numbers of reindeer, which are used as draft 
animals by the natives. 

The southeastern plains, called steppes, are so far from 
the ocean that the west winds can bring them little rain. 
They are therefore dry like the arid region in our West- 
ern states. But the central and western parts are well 
suited to farming, and there most of the people live. As 
in the northern United States, one of their main crops is 
grain, especially wheat ; and vast numbers of cattle and 
sheep roam over the broad, grassy steppes. 

The rivers are excellent waterways, the largest of all 
being the Volga, the greatest river in Europe. What 
others do you find? 

Since the Caspian Sea has no outlet, and the Arctic 
Ocean on the north side is frozen much of the time, the 
chief ports for foreign commerce must be either on the 
Baltic or the Black Sea. This explains the location of 
St. Petersburg, the capital and largest city, which is 
about the size of Philadelphia. Odessa, on the Black 
Sea, contains many flour-mills and is an important port 
for the export of wheat. With what two cities northwest 
of Chicago may it be compared ? 

The chief railway centre is Moscow in the interior, 
which is nearly twice as large as Boston. 



214 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



The great mass of the people, called peasants, are not allowed to 
take any part in the government, and, unlike most of the Euro- 
peans, are kept in 
ignorance and sub- 
jection. They are 
ruled by a man 
called the Czar, 
who makes and ex- 
ecutes laws very 
much as he pleases. 
That kind of gov- 
ernment is called 
an absolute mon- 
archy, or despot- 
ism, and is very 
different from the 
limited monarchies 
thus far studied. 




Fig. 189. 

A family of Russian peasants. 



IV. Germany. — The general slope of the land in Ger- 
many is shown by the rivers ; in what direction do most 
of them flow ? The southern part of the country consists 
of mountains and highlands, but the northern part is a 
great plain, a continuation of the plains of Russia. 

As in Russia, there is much agriculture, one of the 
chief products being grain. Much of their bread is made 
from a grain called rye, and is so dark that it is called 
"black bread." Beets are grown in enormous quantities, 
and sugar is manufactured from them as it is from sugar- 
cane in Louisiana. Grapes flourish along the upper Rhine 
River, and from these wine is made ; and more hops for 
making beer are raised in Germany than in any other 
country of the world. 

Both coal and iron ore are mined in abundance ; and many 
articles are manufactured, such as the famous Krupp guns 



EUROPE 



215 



and many kinds of machinery. Germany is noted also for 
its manufacture of cotton, woollen, and linen goods, ranking 
next to England as 
a manufacturing 
country of Europe. 
The chief seaport 
is Hamburg on the 
Elbe River, a city 
about the size of St. 
Louis. Why should 
the chief port be at 
this point rather 
than farther east on 
the Baltic Sea ? A 
ship canal has re- 
cently been dug 
across the peninsula 
south of Denmark. 




Fig. 190. 
A castle on the Rhine. 



What are the advantages from it ? 




Fig. 191. 
The Royal Museum at Berlin. 

The schools, universities, and museums of Germany are among the 
best tha.t exist, and many Americans go to Germany each year to 



216 



THE EABTH AS A WHOLE 



study music, painting, and other subjects. The largest university is 
in Berlin ; Leipzig also has one, and there are many others. Mu- 
nich and Dresden are noted for their fine picture galleries, and so is 
Berlin, which also has other large museums. Find these cities. 

Berlin, the capital of Germany, is the largest city. 
The government is a limited monarchy, and the present 
ruler is Emperor William II. 

V. Holland, or the Netherlands (a word that means 
lowlands), is a low, flat country, much of it being lower 

than the neighbor- 
ing sea. 

The inhabitants 
have built embank- 
ments, called dikes, to 
keep the sea out, and 
have dug canals across 
the country to drain 
it. The water that 
collects inside the em- 
bankments is pumped 
out by windmills, or 
by steam, into the 
canals, and these ca- 
nals are the chief 
roads, being used in 
summer by boats and in winter by people on skates or on sleds. 

The damp soil furnishes excellent grass, so that cattle raising and 
dairying are the principal occupations. 

The Hollanders, or Dutchmen, living so near the sea, have become 
great sailors and explorers, like the Englishmen. For this reason 
they have come into possession of some of the richest islands in the 
East Indies, from which are obtained valuable products, such as 
coffee, spices, and precious stones. On the map, Fig. 221, facing 
page 249, find the names of some of the Dutch East Indies. Find 
out about the early Dutch settlements in America. What great city 
did they settle ? 




Fig. 192. 
A canal in Holland. 



EUROPE 



217 



The chief city is Amsterdam, which is about the size 
of Baltimore. The government is a monarchy, and the 
laws are made at The Hague, on the coast. 

VI. Belgium, like Holland, has some land that is lower 
than the sea and protected by dikes ; but the eastern 
part is much higher. 

The people are crowded 
together more closely than 
in any other country of Eu- 
rope. Many live on farms and 
raise much the same prod- 
ucts as those of Holland and 
Germany. What are these ? 

Flax is an important farm prod- 
uct. It is a plant about two feet 
high, whose fibre is used in mak- 
ing linen and fine laces. The Bel- 
gians have long been skilful in 
such work, and it was from them 
that the English received some of 
their knowledge about manufac- 
turing. Brussels, the largest city, is famous for its fine laces, linens, 
and Brussels carpets, the latter being made of wool on a mat of linen. 

There is a great amount of coal and iron in this little 
kingdom, so that the iron industry is extensive, as in 
Germany. 

The government is a monarchy with Brussels for its 
capital. Antwerp is the chief seaport. 

VII. France. — The slope of the land in France you see 
by the course of its rivers. What are their names ? 
Where do they rise and in what direction do they flow ? 

In the cool northern part the crops are similar to 
those of Germany ; but in the southern portion the 




Fig. 193. 

A windmill, in Belgium, like those 
so common in Holland. 



218 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



climate is warmer and the crops somewhat different. 
Besides grapes, which are grown in great quantities in 
the region of Bordeaux, and made into wine that is sold 
in many parts of the world, much silk is also produced. 

Silk is manufactured from cocoons spun by a caterpillar called the 
silkworm. Each one of the cocoons is made of a fine thread several 
thousand yards long, looking somewhat like the thread of a spider's 
web. 

After the cocoons have been softened in hot water the threads are 
unwound and then wound upon spools. They are later made into 
thread and woven into silk cloth, ribbons, handkerchiefs, and other 
silk goods. 

Much depends upon the proper care of the silkworm. Their 
principal food is the leaf of the mulberry tree, which is planted in 
great groves in the Rhone Valley, in southern France. The leaves 
are plucked and fed to the worms. 

Lyok, the centre for the silk industry, and the great- 
est silk market in the world, is next to the largest 

city in France. 

Paris, the larg- 
est city in France, 
is the third in 
size in the world, 
and probably the 
most beautiful. 
Like several cities 
in Germany, it 
has fine picture 
galleries and mu- 
seums, and many foreigners go there to study painting, 
music, and other subjects. It is situated upon the Seine 
River, and its chief port is Havre, at the mouth of the 
Seine. 




Fig. 194. 
A view of the great city of Paris. 



EUROPE 



219 




Fig. 195. 
The harbor of Marseille. 



Bordeaux, already mentioned, is an important shipping 
port for wine, and Marseille is the principal port upon 
the Mediter- 
ranean coast. 
From these 
three harbors 
France ships 
goods to and 
from her sev- 
eral colonies 
and other coun- 
tries. 

The French 

government was formerly a monarchy, but is now a re- 
public with Paris as its capital. 

VIII. Spain and Portugal. — The Pyrenees Mountains 
form the boundary between France and Spain, rising like 
a great wall to separate the two countries. 

You remember that Magellan was a Portuguese and that 
it was to Spain that Columbus went for help. These 
were once among the most powerful nations in the world, 
and they once ruled much of North America and most of 
South America. Little by little they have lost their colo- 
nies in the New World, the last to be taken being Cuba 
and Porto Rico. 

Like Mexico, which was settled and for a long time 
owned by the Spanish, Spain has a dry, mountainous 
plateau or table-land in the interior, with low land along 
the coast. 

Being so much like a desert, one would expect few 
people to make their homes in the interior; and this is 
the case, although, strange to say, the greatest city, 



220 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 




Fig. 196. 

A view of a part of Madrid and the great plateau 
on which it is situated. 



Madrid, is found in the centre of this table-land. Its im< 

portance is due to the fact that it is the capital of Spain. 

As upon our dry 
Western plains 
and plateaus, cat- 
tle and sheep rais- 
ing are important 
industries on this 
highland. But 
the rocks of this 
region contain its 
chief wealth, for 
Spain produces 

more quicksilver and lead than any other nation, and more 

copper and iron than most others. 

Farming is carried on in the mountain valleys and on the low 
lands along the coast. One of the most valuable crops is grapes ; 
you have doubtless seen Malaga grapes, named from the city of 
Malaga on the southern coast. Many grapes are made into wine ; 
others are dried to make raisins. Other fruits grown here are olives, 
lemons, oranges, and figs ; besides this much cork is obtained from 
the bark of the cork oak. 

Barcelona, on the eastern side, is the chief port of 
Spain ; and the principal city of Portugal is Lisbon, the 
capital. 

Both governments are limited monarchies, like those 
of most European countries. 

IX. Italy was once the most powerful country in the 
world. Its principal city was Rome, and the Romans 
ruled nearly all the other countries then known. But, 
like Spain, it has lost much of its importance. 

Rome is still the capital and the residence of the king ; 



EUROPE 



221 



also of the 
Pope, who is 
the head of the 
Roman Cath- 
olic Church. 
The city is es- 
pecially noted 
for its many 
ruins of build- 
ings erected 
hundreds of 
years ago. 




Fig. 197. 

St. Peter's Cathedral on the left, and the Vatican, the 
residence of the Pope, on the right. 



Venice, at the head of the Adriatic Sea, is another interesting 
city. It is built upon many islands joined by hundreds of bridges, 
and its chief streets are canals, where boats, called gondolas, are used 
in place of wagons and carriages. 




Fig. 198. 
One of the canals of Venice, with a gondola floating upon it. 

Naples, which is on the coast southeast of Rome, and 
near Mt. Vesuvius, is the largest city in Italy. The steam 



222 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



rising from the crater of Vesuvius is easily seen from the 
city (Fig. 102). Volcanic ash from Mt. Vesuvius has en- 
tirely buried some of the towns near by, such as the ancient 
city of Pompeii, from which the ashes have been dug away 
so as to bring to light the buried buildings and streets. 

The best farm land is in the valley of the Po River in the northern 
part, where wheat, and other grains, and mulberry trees for silk- 
worms are raised. Milan, like Lyon in France, is a great centre for 
silk. 

The climate is mild enough to produce the same fruits that are 
grown in Florida and Southern California. Name some of them. 

X. Switzerland. 

— Any one who has 
heard the story of 
William Tell, or 
who has read about 
the St. Bernard 
dogs kept by the 
monks, has some 
idea of how Swit- 
zerland looks. Here 
are the snow-capped 
Alps, with many 
lakes and fertile valleys between them, and views so 
beautiful that thousands of people go every year to enjoy 
them (p. 21). One of the occupations of the Swiss is to 
provide for these visitors in hotels and restaurants. 

The green grass in the low-lying valleys and on the mountain sides 
provides excellent food for cattle and goats, so that butter and cheese 
are made, as in Holland. Probably you have heard of Swiss and 
Dutch cheese. 

Wood carving is also an important industry. During the long 




Fig. 199. 

The snow-capped Matterhorn, one of the Alpine 
peaks. 



EUROPE 223 

winters the wood grown upon the mountains is carved into toys, 
clocks, and many other articles. Have you ever seen a Swiss clock? 
Name the countries on each side of Switzerland, and notice that it 
is surrounded by people who speak German, French, and Italian. In 
consequence, instead of having one language of their own, the Swiss 
have these three, those living in each part speaking the language of 
the foreign country nearest to them. 

The Swiss government has long been a republic, like 
our own, and Berne is the capital. Find the chief cities, 
Zurich and Geneva. 




Fig. 200. 
A view in Austria. 

XI. Austria-Hungary. — Austria and Hungary are 
united under one monarchy, although they have differ- 
ent customs and languages. Many of the Anstrians are 
closely related to the Germans ; but the Hungarians are 
a very different race. The capital and largest city is 
Vienna, the fourth in size in Europe. It is situated on 
the Danube River, so that it has water connection with 
many other places. 

Budapest is next to Vienna in importance. Like Minneapolis, it 
is in the midst of a great wheat region, and is a flour-milling centre. 



224 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



The cultivation of flax leads to another manufacturing industry. 
What is it? 

Which parts of Austria-Hungary are mountainous? Much coal 
and iron are found in the northwestern part near Germany, and 
Prague is noted for the manufacture of hardware. The chief harbor 
is on the Adriatic coast; what is its name? 

XII. Greece. — The country in Europe which has per- 
haps had the greatest influence upon the rest of the world 
is Greece. The Romans received many of their beliefs and 




Fig. 201. 

The Acropolis with its ruins on top, and the ruins of the Temple of Jupiter on 
the right, hoth in ancient Athens. 

customs from the Greeks; and since many of ours come from 
the Romans, we also are greatly in debt to the Greeks. 

The centre of this influence was Athens, once the most 
famous city in the world. Many years later, at the time 
of Christ, it was still an important place. Both Athens 
and Corinth, near by, are mentioned in the Bible. 

The country is mountainous, producing raisins and other fruits, 
and much grass for grazing. But there is little mining and manu- 
facturing. 

At one time the Greeks were conquered by the Turks and very 



EUROPE 



225 



cruelly treated by them ; but they obtained their independence, and 
their government is now a monarchy with Athens for its capital. 

XIII. Turkey. — The largest city in southeastern Eu- 
rope is Constantinople, which is about one-half as 
large as Chicago. Notice what an excellent location it 
has. It is the capital of Turkey, which, like Russia, is a 
country partly in Europe and partly in Asia. 

The Turkish govern- 
ment is the worst in Eu- 
rope. The ruler, called 
the Sultan, is an absolute 
despot, who governs his 
people so badly that they 
are kept extremely igno- 
rant and poor. In all the 
other nations of Europe 
the Christian religion, 
either Catholic or Prot- 
estant, is followed; but 
the Turks are Moham- 
medans, followers of Mohammed, like many other people 
in Asia and Africa. They are religious fanatics, and dis- 
like Christians very much. 

One proof that the Turkish government is bad, is the fact that the 
people in many parts of the Empire have rebelled against it and 
fought for their freedom. For example, Roumania, east of Austria, 
used to belong to Turkey, but it is now an independent kingdom. 
The same is true of Bulgaria, Servia, and Montenegro; Greece has 
already been mentioned. 

The people in all these countries are largely engaged in 
farming and herding, the Danube Valley being especially 
fertile. Grain, wine, and raisins are important products. 

Q 




Fig. 202. 

A mosque, or Mohammedan church, in 
Constantinople. 



226 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



REVIEW QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 

I. The British Isles. Questions. — (1) What are the divisions of 
the British Isles? Where is each? (2) Why have not the British 
Isles a colder climate? (3) Tell about the agriculture. (4) What 
kinds of cloth are manufactured ? Where ? (5) Where is the iron 
manufacturing carried on? (6) Of what value are the coal-beds? 
(7) Tell about Ireland. (8) Explain how Great Britain has come to 
have so many ships. (9) So many colonies. Name some of them, 
including several islands near North America. (10) What is the 
British Empire? Wliat kind of government has it ? (11) Locate all 
the cities mentioned. 

Suggestions. — (12) What books have you read whose authors lived 
in Great Britain? (13) Examine pocket-knives and table-knives to see 
if you can find some made in England. (14) The iron manufactories 
of England remind you of what states in this country? (15) When 
did our country cease to be a colony of Great Britain ? (16) What 
are the people from the four divisions of the British Isles called? 
(17) Make a drawing of the British Isles. 

II. Norse Countries. Questions. — (18) What about the climate 
of Norway and Sweden? (19) Tell about the agriculture; the other 
industries. (20) What are the Norse nations? (21) What colonies 
have the Danes? (22) Name the chief industries of Denmark. 
(23) What kind of government have these Norse countries? and 
what is the capital of each? 

Suggestions. — (24) Find out something about Iceland. (25) In 
what other section that you have studied is fishing important? 

(26) Find out about the length of days and nights in Norway. 

(27) Draw a map of the Scandinavian peninsula. 

III. Russia. Questions. — (28) Tell about the size of Russia. 
(29) What parts of Russia in Europe are not fitted for farming? 
Why? (30) What is the main occupation of the people? Name the 
important products. (31) What are the tundras? The steppes? 
(32) Which is the largest river in Europe ? (33) Where are the lead- 
ing Russian ports ? (34) Locate three of the largest cities, and state 
why each is important. (35) Tell about the government. 

Suggestions. — (36) Why would you not expect Russian sailors 
to be as numerous as the English sailors ? (37) Name some city of 



EUROPE 227 

the United States which is about as far north as Odessa. (38) How- 
does the northern location of St. Petersburg interfere with its com- 
merce by sea? (39) What city on the St. Lawrence has the same 
difficulty? (40) Show the route a vessel would take in going from 
Odessa to London. From Odessa to St. Petersburg. 

IV. Germany. Questions. — (41) Where is the highest land in 
Germany? The great plains? (42) Tell about the chief farm prod- 
ucts. (43) What are the principal manufactures in Germany? 
(44) Where is Hamburg? (45) For what is Berlin noted? Leipzig? 
Munich? Dresden? Locate each. (46) Tell about the govern- 
ment. 

Suggestions. — (47) Do you know any songs or stories about the 
Rhine River? (48) Make a drawing showing the course of this river. 
(49) Do you know of any German paintings ? Of any music written 
by Germans ? (50) Make a collection of German pictures. 

V. Holland. Questions. — (51) Tell about the dikes and canals of 
Holland. (52) What is the principal industry? Why? (53) What 
important colonies has Holland? (54) What are the main cities? 

Suggestions. — (55) Write a story telling what you think might 
result if a dike were to give way. (56) Find a picture of a Dutch 
windmill. (57) Tell what you would expect to see in crossing Hol- 
land on a railway train. 

VI. Belgium. Questions. — (58) What are the farm products of 
Belgium? (59) Tell w 7 hat you can about flax. (60) Name and lo- 
cate the two principal cities. (61) What about coal and iron? 

Suggestions. — (62) Examine a piece of Brussels carpet ; a piece 
of lace also. 

VII. France. Questions. — (63) Describe the chief slopes of 
France. (64) What are the products in the northern part? In the 
southern part ? (65) Tell about the silk industry. (66) What can 
you say about the capital? (67) About each of the other cities? 
(68) What kind of government has France? 

Suggestions. — (69) Examine a cocoon and a piece of silk. Ob- 
tain a caterpillar, if possible the silkworm, and raise it in the school 
to see how the silkworm forms silk and what happens to the 
" worm." (70) Why would the value of a cocoon be destroyed if 
the chrysalis inside were to break through in order to get out ? 
(71) Can you find any pictures of Paris ? 



228 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

VIII. Spain and Portugal. Questions. — (72) Where are the 
Pyrenees Mountains? (73) Tell about the former power of these 
countries. (74) Describe the relief and climate. (75) What are the 
industries on the plateau? (76) What minerals are found there? 

(77) Where is most of the farming? What are the chief products? 

(78) Name and locate the most important coast cities. The two 
capitals. 

Suggestions. — (79) Would you expect the rivers to be naviga- 
ble for any considerable distance from the Spanish coast? Why? 

(80) Make a sand map of Spain, showing the high and low land. 

(81) Examine some quicksilver. For what is it used? (82) Can 
you find out anything about the Moors and the Alhambra in south- 
ern Spain ? Perhaps you can find pictures from there. Washington 
Irving has written some beautiful stories about the Alhambra. 

IX. Italy. Questions. — (83) Where is Rome? Venice? Na- 
ples? Mt. Vesuvius? Milan? (84) Tell something about each of 
these. (85) Where are the mountains ? ' (86) Where is the Po Val- 
ley? (87) What is raised in Italy? 

Suggestions. — (88) Find pictures of some of the ruins in Rome. 
(89) Of some of the buildings in Venice. (90) Look on a globe to see in 
which direction Rome is from New York. (91) Draw a map of Italy. 

X. Switzerland. Questions. — (92) What are some of the in- 
dustries of the Swiss? (93) What languages are spoken ? (94) Name 
the principal cities. (95) What is the kind of government? 

Suggestions.— (96) Read the story of William Tell. (97) Find 
other stories about Switzerland. (98) What disadvantages do you 
see in having so many languages? (99) What large rivers rise in 
Switzerland? (100) Write a story desci'ibing a visit to the Alps. 
You will get some suggestions from Figure 15, page 18, Figure 110, 
page 132, and Figure 20, page 23. 

XI. Austria-Hungary. Questions. — (101) Name four leading 
cities in Austria-Hungary. (102) Tell why each is important. 

Suggestions. — (103) Trace the Danube River from its source to 
its mouth. (104) How far is Trieste from Venice? (105) Through 
what waters would a vessel pass in sailing from New York to Trieste? 
(106) By using the scale on the map, find out how far Vienna is from 
Munich. From Leipzig. From Berlin. From Paris. From St. 
Petersburg. (107) In what direction is it from each of these? 



EUEOPE 229 

XII. Greece. Questions. — (108) What can you say about the 
influence of Greece upon the world? (109) Find Athens. (110) Tell 
about the climate and products. 

Suggestions. — (HI) Where can you read about Ulysses? 

(112) Have some one tell you the story of the Trojan War. 

(113) Find some other stories about the ancient Greeks. 

XIII. Turkey. Questions. — (114) Where is Turkey? What is 
its capital? (115) Tell about its government. (116) What is the 
chief occupation of the people? (117) What countries have gained 
their independence from Turkey? 

Suggestions. — (118) What is the boundary line between Tur- 
key in Europe and Turkey in Asia? (119) Examine a Turkish rug. 
(120) What reasons can you give why Russia would like to own 
Constantinople ? 

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS 

(121) Do you know of any persons who have come from one of 
these countries of Europe? If so, ask them to tell you about them. 
Also have them speak in their native language. (122) Ask a 
merchant to show you some goods from Europe. (123) What diffi- 
culties would you expect to meet if you were to travel through Europe 
without knowing any foreign languages ? (124) Bound each of the 
countries of Europe. (125) Draw an outline map of Europe, putting 
in these boundaries and the principal rivers. (126) Make a dot to 
represent Berlin ; also locate the other large cities. Mark the capitals 
with stars. (127) Collect pictures of Europe for the school collection. 
(128) Cut out scraps, from the magazines and papers, relating to the 
people, animals, plants, cities, etc., of different parts of Europe and 
present them to the school to be kept for use in the geography class. 
They can be arranged by countries and will be very useful. 

For References, see page 261. 



XIX. ASIA 

Map Questions. — (1) Through what zones does Asia extend? 
(2) What climate would you expect to find? (3) Where are the 
highest mountains and plateaus? (4) What rivers have their sources 
in that region? (5) What large inland seas do you find? (6) What 
three large peninsulas on the southern side? (7) What three were 
found on the south side of Europe ? (8) How does Asia compare in 
size with Europe? (9) Find Asia on a globe. (10) How could you 
reach it, if you wished to go there? (11) On the map, which way 
is north from the British Isles ? From Kamchatka ? 

Physical Geography. — Like Europe, the coast of Asia 
is very irregular, with many peninsulas and islands. 
Draw an outline map of it, showing these, with the larger 
bays and seas enclosed by them. 

Note the direction in which the many mountain ranges 
extend. The loftiest among them, and in fact the highest 
in the world, are the Himalaya Mountains (Fig. 204), 
the highest peak, Mount Everest, being over twenty-nine 
thousand feet, or about five and one-half miles, above the 
sea. Where is it ? How does it compare in height with 
Mt. Blanc? (Seep. 270.) 

North of the Himalayas are lofty plateaus, one of them, 
the plateau of Tibet, being about three miles in height. 
How does that compare with the Spanish plateau (see 
p. 271) and with our western plateau (see p. 271) ? 
It is so high that the winter climate is very cold ; and 
since the winds from the ocean have lost their moisture 
in passing over the mountains, these plateaus are also 

230 



ASIA 



231 



dry. Farther north it is drier still, and we find there 
the great desert of Gobi. 

These mountains and plateaus form the watershed of the conti- 
nent. Find three great rivers that flow northward from the watershed 
through the vast plain of Siberia. Name three that flow eastward 
into the Pacific Ocean. What others flow southward? 

The southwestern portion of Asia is mainly a desert 
because the winds blowing over it come from the land 
instead of from the sea, and therefore have little vapor. 




Fig. 204. 
The snowy range of the lofty Himalayas. 

From what has been said about the climate it is plain that the 
inhabitants of this continent must be found chiefly in the eastern 
and southern parts. There they live in vast numbers along the coast 
and the large rivers ; in fact, nearly one-half of all the people in the 
world are found in these regions. 

I. Southwestern Asia. — Rome and Athens have been 
mentioned as cities that have had a great influence upon 
other countries. But the part of the world which has 
probably had the greatest influence of all is that at the 
eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea. Here is the land 



232 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



that used to be called Palestine, the home of the Jews * 
and here is still the city of Jerusalem (Fig. 205), near 
which Christ was born about 1900 years ago, and in which 
He was crucified. The Christian churches and Christmas 
are in His memory. The home of Christ, where the 
Christian religion was founded, is now a part of the 
Turkish empire which extends into Asia. 

Turkey extends down the western coast of the Arabian peninsula, 
and includes another famous city called Mecca. The Turks are not 
Christians but Mohammedans, or followers of Mohammed, who was 




Fig. 205. 
A picture of a part of Jerusalem. 

born at Mecca nearly fourteen hundred years ago. The Moham- 
medans believe in God, and their holy book is called the Koran. A 
great many other people in Asia and northern Africa are followers of 
Mohammed. 

The western part of Asia, including Turkey, Arabia, 
and Persia, has a very dry or arid climate. This is par- 
ticularly true of Arabia, which is mainly a desert plateau 
much more arid than Spain. 

In this desert country agriculture is not a very impor- 



ASIA 



233 



tant industry ; but dates and coffee are raised there, espe- 
cially near the rivers and along the coast. You have 
perhaps heard of Mocha coffee, and if you look on the 
map you can find the place from which it gets its name. 




Fig. 206. 
The home of a group of Persian nomads. 

Although so much of this region is desert, there are places, called 
oases, where water is found. As these are usually too small to fur- 
nish water and grass for large herds during a long time, the Arabs are 
forced to wander from place to place, having no fixed homes. On 
that account they are called nomads or wanderers (Fig. 206). They 
take special pride in raising horses, which have become famous through- 
out the world. They also keep cattle, sheep, goats, and camels. 

Much of Persia is also a desert ; but some parts are 
well suited to grazing, and the climate is warm enough 
for such fruits as figs and dates. What is the capital ? 
The ruler of the Persians is a despot called the Shah. 

The people of these countries are not civilized enough to carry on 
much manufacturing, although beautiful carpets, rugs, and shawls 
are made in great numbers, especially in Persia and Turkey. The 



234 THE EABTH AS A WHOLE 

work is done by hand, and though it is well done, it requires a great 
deal of time, while in our great factories carpets are quickly made by 
machinery. Railways are almost unknown, and even carriage roads 
are usually lacking. Goods are carried upon camels in groups, called 
caravans, and men travel upon the backs of horses and camels. 

II. Siberia. — Siberia belongs to Russia. It is a region 
of extensive plains and is much larger than the whole of 
Russia in Europe. Like northern Canada, much of it is 
so cold that few people can live there, and it has been 
made a prison for many Russians who have committed 
crime, or who have offended their despotic rulers. 

A large portion of southwestern Siberia is a desert having numerous 
lakes without outlets. Would you expect them to be salt or fresh? 
Between this arid section and the bleak northern plains, or tundras, 
which resemble those of northern Europe, is a region where there 
are extensive forests, and broad plains suited for grazing and farming. 




Fig. 207. 
A Siberian three-horse wagon. 

One of the chief sources of wealth of Siberia is in the gold mines 
of the Ural Mountains. Graphite, from which the " lead " in lead 
pencils is made, is also found there. Many of the prisoners from 
Russia are compelled to work in these mines. 



ASIA 



235 



The Kussian government has built a great railway all the way 
from St. Petersburg eastward to Port Arthur in China on the 
Pacific coast. How far is that? 

III. The Chinese Empire and Corea. — Some of the most 
important arts that we have ever learned first came from 
the Chinese. For instance, they made porcelain dishes 
long before Europeans knew how, and on that account 




Fig. 208. 
Houseboats on the Tientsin River of China. 

those dishes are still called chinaware, even though manu- 
factured in the United States. They invented gunpow- 
der, and our firecrackers for the Fourth of July used to 
come from China. They also discovered how to make 
silk and paper, and they invented the art of printing. 

But while this strange-looking, yellow race was once among the 
foremost nations of the earth, it is now very much behind. This is 
explained partly by the fact that their religion causes them to wor- 
ship their ancestors, so that whatever their fathers did, they must do. 
Since their fathers had no railways, telegraphs, or telephones, none 
are wanted now. Owing to their fear of new things, they have 
neither travelled abroad much nor allowed foreigners to visit them. 

But recently many Chinese have come to this country, working as 
servants, especially on the Pacific coast, and as laundrymen in all 



236 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



parts of our countey. Besides that, they now allow foreigners to live 
in some of their coast cities and trade with the people. 

Canton in the southern part, which is considerably 
larger than Chicago, and Shanghai, a city nearly as 
large as Baltimore, are the principal ports for trade with 
Americans. Hongkong is a British port. 

Much of the northern and western portions of the Chinese Empire 
are so high and dry that few persons can live there. Find the names 
of those parts. But the lower plains near the coast, especially the 
fertile flood plains and deltas of the great rivers, support a vast popu- 
lation, because the soil is fertile, and abundant rainfall is supplied by 
the damp winds from the Pacific. Here live nearly one-fourth of all 
the inhabitants of the globe, crowded together so closely that many 
thousands dwell in boats on the rivers. 

In the northern part a great deal of wheat is raised ; 
but farther south rice, millet, tea, and silk are important 

products. China 
produces more 
raw silk than any 
other country in 
the world. What 
other regions are 
noted for these 
same products? 

The govern- 
ment is an abso- 
lute monarchy, 
with the capital at 
Peking, which, 
like Tientsin, its 
seaport, is nearly twice as large as Boston. The govern- 
ment is so weak and corrupt that European nations are 




Fig. 209. 
Temple in Peking. 



ASIA 



237 



able to seize and hold parts of the country, so that the 
once great empire is in danger of being destroyed and the 
different parts made subject to various European nations. 

Korea is also a very unprogressive nation which, until recently, 
would not permit foreigners to enter. 

IV. Japan. — The Japanese live upon islands east of Asia, 
as the British do west of Europe. Their territory is but 
slightly larger than 
the British Isles, and 
there are not many 
more inhabitants. 
Many of the islands 
are small, but there 
are five large ones, the 
southernmost being 
Formosa. They are 
really the crest of a 
mountain range ris- 
ing above the sea, and 
some of the mountain 
peaks are volcanoes. 




Fig. 210. 

A Japanese woman being carried in a travelling 
chair by two Japanese men. 



The Japanese used to be much like their neighbors, the Chinese ; 
that is, they believed in ancestor worship, and wanted nothing to do 
with foreigners. But in 1853 an American naval officer, with several 
war-ships, entered the harbor of Yokohama and persuaded the Jap- 
anese to allow us to trade with them. 

Before many years had passed the Japanese not only allowed 
foreigners to enter, but they invited them to come as teachers, and 
even sent some of their own young men abroad to study. There have 
been many Japanese students in the colleges and universities of the 
United States during the last twenty years. 

The result is that Japan is now far in advance of China, and in 



238 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



fact of all other parts of Asia. Railways, telephones, and newspapers 
are common, and there are many good schools, while rapid progress 
has been made in manufacturing. 

That the Japanese are very skilful in many kinds of 
handiwork is suggested by the Japanese fans, parasols, 
napkins, dolls, and screens so often seen in this country. 

Whatever they 
make they try to 
make beautiful, be- 
ing one of the most 
artistic races in the 
world. 

Japan, like 
China, produces a 
great amount of 
silk, rice, and tea. 
There is also some 
mining. 

The principal 
city and capital is 
Tokio, which is 
as large as Phila- 
delphia, and is the 
home of the em- 
peror, called the 
Mikado. Its seaport is Yokohama, a city as large as 
Rochester. 

V. India and Indo-China. — India, the central one of 
the three peninsulas on the southern side of Asia, is the 
country that Columbus thought he had reached when he 
discovered America. Hence the name " Indians " for the 
savages whom he met. 




Fig. 211. 

The way Japanese babies are carried by the young 
girls. The baby leaning back is asleep. 



ASIA 



239 




Fig. 212. 
Idols in a cave near Bombay. 



The damp winds from the Indian Ocean furnish the plains and 
mountains of India with so much rain that in places the forests form 
a perfect tangle or jungle 
of luxuriant vegetation, 
in which live tigers, ele- 
phants, and many other 
wild animals. Have you 
ever read Rudyard Kip- 
ling's " Jungle Book," 
which tells of this region ? 
Several very large rivers 
rise in the Himalayas and 
flow across the plains. 
One is the Indus, from 
which the word India comes, and also the word Hindoos, as the in- 
habitants are sometimes called. 
The river flowing southeast is the 
Ganges, on which is the capital 
and largest city, Calcutta. The 
next city in size on this eastern 
coast is Madras, far to the south, 
while the largest city on the 
west side is Bombay, which has 
the best harbor of all. 

Nearly all this peninsula, to- 
gether with the part of Indo- 
China called Burmah, belongs to 
England, through whose influ- 
ence roads and railways have 
been built and manufacturing 
carried on. 



One of the chief reasons 
why England holds India 
is for the important crops 
raised there. Cotton, one 
of the principal products, 




Fig. 213. 

A view in the palace grounds at Bang- 
kok, Siam. 



240 THE EABTH AS A WHOLE 

is shipped to England to be made into cloth, and then 
some of this cloth is shipped back to India and sold. 
Where else have we found a similar situation? 

Wheat is another great product, and since England 
cannot raise enough of that food for herself, she secures 
some of it from India. Other crops are poppies, from 
which opium is made, silk, rice, tea, coffee, and sugar. 

The peninsula east of India, called Indo-China, and the East 
Indian Islands south of it, are other places that Columbus wished to 
reach. Here are found precious stones, pepper, such spices as nutmeg 
and cinnamon, and other valuable products, which were carried by 
caravans to Europe long before the time of Columbus. Many of these 
products are now shipped from Singapore, an English city on an 
island at the southern end of the Malay peninsula. The greatest city 
in Indo-China is Bangkok, the capital of the kingdom of Siam. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS ' 

I. Southwestern Asia. Questions. — (1) What part of Asia has 
had the greatest influence upon the civilized world ? Tell about it. 
(2) To what nation does Palestine belong? (3) What other parts 
of Asia belong to it? (4) Tell about Mecca. (5) Describe Arabia. 
(6) How do the Arabians live ? (7) What do you know about Per- 
sia? (8) How do people travel in those countries? 

Suggestions. — (9) What is meant by the date 1900 ? (10) What 
buildings in your neighborhood have been erected in the memory of 
Christ? (11) What stories in the Bible have you read that tell about 
places mentioned in this book or on the map? (12) What reasons 
can you suggest why the Turks have not taken possession of the inte- 
rior of Arabia, as well as of the coast? (13) Does your grocer sell 
Mocha coffee? (14) Examine a Persian or Turkish rug. (15) Learn 
how camels are especially fitted to live in desert countries. 

II. Siberia. Questions. — (16) Point toward Siberia. (17) Tell 
about the climate. (18) In what occupations are the people engaged ? 
(19) How does Siberia compare in size with Russia? 



ASIA 241 

Suggestions. — (20) What advantage will the railway be to 
Russia? (21) How does that railway compare in length with those 
reaching across the United States ? (22) What object do you see in 
having the eastern terminus, Port Arthur, so far south? 

III. Chinese Empire and Korea. Questions. — (23) Name some of 
the arts that we have learned from the Chinese. (24) What has 
made them so backward ? (25) What special ports are open to 
American traders ? (26) In what part of China do most of the peo- 
ple live? Why there? (27) What are the principal products? 
(28) What kind of a government has China? (29) Tell about Korea. 

Suggestions. — (30) How can you distinguish a Chinaman from 
other men ? (31) How does the number of people in China compare 
with the number in the whole of Europe? (See the table on p. 262.) 
(32) Write a story telling some of the differences between life in 
America and in China. (33) Draw the two chief rivers in China. 
(34) How might railways in China help to prevent the awful famines 
that they have there ? (35) Find out about Confucius. About the 
Great Wall of China. 

IV. Japan. Questions. — (36) Where is Japan? (37) In what 
way have the Japanese been like the Chinese? (38) How have they 
differed? (39) Why are they called an artistic race? (40) What 
are their chief products ? (41) Name and locate the chief cities. 

Suggestions. — (42) Make a collection of Japanese articles, as 
paper napkins, fans, etc. (43) Examine them to see in what respect 
they are artistic. (44) Collect pictures of Japanese houses and people. 

V. India and Indo-China. Questions. — (45) What nation owns 
India? (46) What rivers in northern India? (47) Locate the chief 
cities. (48) W T hat are the products? (49) What advantages does 
England enjoy in owning India? (50) Name the peninsula east of 
India. (51) What comes from there? (52) Find Singapore. 

Suggestions. — (53) How far was Columbus from India when he 
discovered America? (54) What route should he have taken if he 
had continued his voyage to India? (55) What is the shortest route 
from Bombay to London ? Through what waters would a vessel pass ? 

VI. Review. — (56) Draw an outline map of Asia and put in the 
boundary lines of the principal countries ; also the rivers, mountains, 
and cities. (57) Find out about foreign missions to Asia, 

For References, see page 261. 



XX. AFRICA 

Map Questions. — (1) What continent does Africa most resem- 
ble in shape? (2) In what parts are the chief mountain ranges? 

(3) Find the main slopes on the continent by a study of the rivers. 

(4) Name and trace the three largest rivers. (5) About how much 
of Africa lies in the torrid zone ? (6) How does its coast line compare 
with that of Europe as to regularity? (7) What influence must that 
have upon the harbors ? 

The Dark Continent. — Although Africa is so near 
Europe that they almost join at the Strait of Gibraltar, 
and although it is one of the oldest continents that history 
tells about, it is the least known of them all. 

There are several reasons for this. In the first place, 
south of the Mediterranean Sea is a broad desert, extend- 
ing entirely across the continent. This, a part of which is 
called the Sahara Desert (Fig. 69), is about a thousand 
miles wide, and very difficult to cross. 

Far south of this desert, for more than a thousand miles, 
the country is covered with a forest where the rainfall 
is heavy ; and near the equator the vegetation is so rank 
that an almost impenetrable jungle is formed, like the 
Amazon jungle. It is inhabited by large and fierce ani- 
mals, such as the elephant, tiger (Fig. Ill), and lion. 

The rivers offer further obstacles to travel. The con- 
tinent is mainly a plateau, varying from one-fourth to one 
and one-half miles in height ; and its rivers on approaching 
the ocean have numerous rapids and falls, so that boats 
cannot make their way up-stream. 

242 



AFRICA 



243 




Fig. 215. 

The Great Pyramid and the Sphynx. What animals are those standing on the 
desert sands-near the Sphynx? 

Not only are there deserts, unnavigable rivers, and dense 
forests with fierce animals, but there are hordes of savages 
belonging to the black race. It was from Africa that 
negroes were first brought to our country as slaves, and 
on that account those now here are often called Africans. 

Here, then, are several reasons why we know so little 
about Africa, which, because of this, and because so many 
blacks live there, is sometimes called the "dark conti- 
nent." 

Northern Africa. — The African side of the Mediter- 
ranean Sea, being so close to Asia and Europe, has long 
been settled by the white race. Many of the inhabitants 



244 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



are Arabs, who, being believers in Mohammed, still make 
pilgrimages to Mecca in Arabia, like other followers of 
that prophet. 

The best-known country in this section is Egypt, and 
Cairo, its capital, is the largest city in Africa, being 
about twice the size of New Orleans. Alexandria is 
the chief Egyptian port. 

This is the country over which the Pharaohs, the kings of Egypt, 
used to rule ; and the ruins of the immense pyramids and monu- 
ments that they built thousands of years ago may still be seen. 
Here, the Bible tells, Moses once lived ; and Joseph also. What 
stories do you remember about them? 

Most of Egypt is a desert country, like Arabia on the one 
side and the Sahara Desert on the other. The Nile River 
flows through this desert, and every year the heavy floods, 
from the mountains of Abyssinia and the forest country 
near the equator, cause it to rise higher and higher until it 
overflows its banks. These floods, spreading out over the 
flood plain and level delta of the Nile, irrigate the land. 

As in other rivers, the water carries with it an abundance 
of mud, which settles in a thin layer of rich soil upon the flood 

plain, making it so 
fertile that excel- 
lent crops of cotton, 
sugar-cane, and 
grain can be raised 
after the water is 
gone. By this 
means millions of 
people obtain food, 
Fig. 216. although they live 

A ship passing through the Suez Canal. in a desert region. 




AFRICA 



245 



The eastern part of Egypt includes the Isthmus of Suez, -which con- 
nects Africa with Asia. Because of this narrow neck of land, ships sail- 
ing from Europe to Asia were compelled to go all the way round Africa ; 
but in 1869 a canal one hundred miles long was completed across the 
isthmus, so that vessels can now make a short cut. Estimate how many 
miles are saved by the Suez Canal in going from London to Calcutta. 

Name the countries west of Egypt along the Mediter- 
ranean coast. What are their capitals ? Most of them, 
like Egypt itself, are controlled by countries of Europe. 
Their products are similar to those on the northern side 
of the Mediterranean. What are some of them ? 




Fig. 217. 
A family camped on an oasis in the desert of Morocco. 

On the desert of Sahara few people are able to live. Some parts 
are sandy plains, while others are rocky and hilly, and in places 
even mountainous. But here and there, as in Arabia, are oases where 
water comes from underground, so that grass and date palms are able 
to grow. Sometimes these oases are so large that villages are built 
upon them ; and the caravans that cross the desert to bring ivory and 
other products from the south, make their stops at these places. Some 
of these caravans consist of hundreds of camels, so that there is need 
of much food and water. 



246 



TEE EARTE AS A WEOLE 



Central Africa. — Until a few years ago this was a wil- 
derness that no civilized man had ever visited ; but now 
much of it has been explored. The natives are mainly 
savage blacks ; and the Arabs, who go there to purchase 
ivory, still carry large numbers of them away as slaves. 

The northern part is called the Sudan. Near the 
borders of the Sahara the country is a desert ; but this 
condition gradually changes until, farther south, the land 
is covered with a dense tropical forest, for the rains are 
heavy near the equator. In this region live the lion, 
rhinoceros, giraffe, and elephant, the latter being killed 
for the sake of its ivory tusks. Some of the forest woods 
are valuable, and since the rubber tree flourishes there, as 
along the Amazon, rubber is another product. See page 202. 

The two great rivers of this region are the Niger, north of the 
equator, and the Kongo, south of it. They are the main roads leading 

inland, although their falls 
and rapids greatly interfere 
with travel. Throughoutthat 
entire region there are almost 
no wagon roads, so that goods 
must be carried either on the 
rivers or over paths or trails 
in pack trains. But this sit- 
uation is improving as the 
nations of Europe obtain 
more and more control. At 
the present time, several Eu- 
ropean countries claim parts 
of Africa, England having 
a very large share, as you will see from the map, and they are intro- 
ducing civilized laws, railways, and other improvements. 




Fig. 218. 
Kaffirs, South African savages, in full dress. 



South Africa. — Southern Africa is the best-developed 
section of the continent. It was originally settled by the 



AFRICA 



247 



Dutch, though England has taken possession of a portion 
of it. Part of it is a high plateau, with a warm temperate 




Fig. 219. 
A group of ostriches in South Africa. 

climate, having many of the same products as our OAvn 
country. Most of the people are engaged in farming and 
ranching, producing grain, wool, and hides. Ostrich 
farming is an impor- 
tant industry in Cape 
Colony, the beautiful 
feathers of the male 
bird being very valua- 
ble. 

Johannesburg is 
the centre of the richest 
gold-mining region in 
the world, and more 
diamonds are obtained 
from near Kimberley than from any other part of the 
globe. Portions of southern Africa have long been settled 




Fig. 220. 
A picture of a diamond mine at Kimherley. 



248 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

by Europeans and much of it is now owned by England, 
the oldest colony being Cape Colony, the capital of which 
is Cape Town. Consequently many railways and good 
wagon roads have been built, and many other advances 
have been made. 

Review Questions. — (1) Why is so little known about Africa? 
(2) Why is it called the "dark continent"? (3) Which is the best- 
known country in northern Africa? (4) Name and locate its two 
chief cities. (5) Tell about the Nile River. (6) About the Suez 
Canal. (7) About the Sahara Desert. (8) Where is the Sudan? 
What animals live there? (9) What two great rivers are in Central 
Africa? (10) How are goods carried from place to place? (11) 
What influence are the nations of Europe having upon Africa? 
(12) What climate has Southern Africa? What are the occupa- 
tions of the people ? 

Suggestions. — (1) What reasons can you give why Timbuktu 
should be an important trade centre? (2) The caravans composed 
of camels travel at the rate of about sixteen miles per day. How 
long would it probably take for a caravan to travel from Timbuktu 
to Tripoli on the Mediterranean coast? (3) One camel can carry 
about four hundred pounds. How many tons could a caravan of 
six hundred camels carry? (4) What are some of the dangers of a 
journey across the desert? (5) Beginning with the western Sahara, 
trace the desert country that extends across Africa and Asia. (6) Why 
should the two largest cities in Africa be located at or near the mouth 
of the Nile River? (7) Find some object made of ivory and show 
it to the class. (8) Examine an ostrich feather and a diamond. 
(9) Why are there no tributaries to the northern half of the Nile? 
What part of the river, then, probably has most water? (10) Find 
out about the war between the Boers (those living in the South Afri- 
can Republic and Orange Free State) and the British. (11) Draw 
an outline map of Africa and put in the main rivers and cities. 

For References, see page 261. 



XXL AUSTRALIA, THE EAST INDIES, PHILIP- 
PINES, AND THE OTHER ISLANDS OF THE 
PACIFIC 

Map Questions. — (1) Find Australia on a globe and show how 
you would reach it from New York in a vessel. Through what waters 
would you pass? (See Fig. 120.) (2) From San Francisco? From 
London? (3) In what part are most of the mountains? (4) The 
rivers? (5) The cities? (6) In what zones is Australia? (7) Will 
there be any cold winter on this continent ? (8) Look on a globe to 
see what other continents are in the same zones. 

(9) What are the principal islands of the East Indies ? Find Ba- 
tavia. (10) In what direction are the Philippine Islands from Austra- 
lia? (11) Estimate the distance. (12) Find the Hawaiian Islands. 

I. Australia. — The names of the three eastern divi- 
sions of Australia — Victoria, New South Wales, ?nd 
Queensland — suggest the country to which this continent 
belongs. Which is it ? As has been done in Canada, the 
various sections of Australia have been joined into one con- 
federation similar to our own confederation of states. 

Australia is the smallest of the continents, being about 
the size of the United States, not including Alaska. It 
is a low plateau, with the chief mountain range on the 
eastern side. These mountains have much influence on 
the climate; for, since the prevailing winds are from the 
southeast, as they reach this range, and rise to pass over 
it, they grow cooler and lose most of their moisture. If 
the mountains were on the western side, as the Andes are 

249 



250 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

in South America, nearly the whole country might be well 
watered, like the Amazon Valley. As it is, however, the 
eastern coast of Australia has abundant rain, while farther 
westward it becomes drier, until, at a distance of one 
hundred and fifty miles from the coast, farming is almost 
impossible. 

What about the country farther west ? With what part 
of Africa should it be compared ? Where must the chief 




Fig. 222. 
A forest of tree ferns in Australia. 

rivers be ? Where might we expect to find salt lakes ? 
The best farm land ? The principal cities and most of the 
people ? 

Now examine the map to see if you are right. Where 
is the large desert ? (It is dotted.) What is the name 
of the main river ? There is often so little rain, even on 
the lower part of the Murray River Basin, that the river 
grows smaller toward its mouth; and its chief tributary, 
the Darling, dries up almost entirely. 



AUSTRALIA 



251 



When the English began to colonize this country, they found it 
inhabited by a very low class of savages ; and the plants and animals 
were found to be different from those elsewhere. A great part of the 
interior was covered with a low bush, called " scrub," having hard, 
prickly leaves and often growing so dense that it was difficult for one 
to make his way through it. It caused the country to 
look desolate indeed. 

There were none of the fierce animals common to 
other countries, the largest being the kangaroo, which is 
furnished with a sack or pouch for carrying its young. 
Instead of running on all fours, it jumps along on its 
hind legs, using its tail for support. 

Finding the plants and animals of 
little use, the English began to im- 
port some. Sheep were taken 
there and found to thrive ; for 
the temperature is so mild that 
they are not exposed to cold, 
and some of the plants 
furnish excellent 
food. Conse- 
quently, great 
sheep ranches 
or sheep runs, as 
they are called 
there, have been 
established. The best sections for this purpose are Vic- 
toria and New South Wales, where wool has become one 
of the chief exports. Indeed, Australian wool is the best 
in the world. 




Fig. 223. 
An Australian kangaroo. 



The imported cattle have likewise multiplied, so that hides and 
meat are produced in abundance. Wheat and corn also nourish, and 
many fruits, such as we know, are now plentiful in that region. 



252 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

The presence of mountains suggests that metals might 
exist there, which is the case. For many years Australia 
has ranked as one of the most important gold-producing 
countries of the world. 

Since these industries have become very extensive, 
especially in the rainy southeastern part, we see why 
several great cities have grown up in that section. The 
largest is Melbourne, the capital of Victoria, which is 
nearly as large as Boston. The next is Sydney, the capi- 
tal of New South Wales, nearly as large ; and the third 
is Adelaide, the capital of South Australia. 

An island, Tasmania, just south of Australia, is owned 
by the British, and has almost the same industries as Vic- 
toria. 

The New Zealand Islands are also British, and in the 
climate and the customs of the people they resemble 
Australia. What is the capital ? What other city is 
found there ? Do you remember the geysers for which 
the Yellowstone National Park is noted (p. 178) ? New 
Zealand and Iceland are the only two other parts of the 
world where geysers are found. 

Manufacturing is not }^et greatly developed, so that 
quantities of wool, hides, metals, etc., are exported, going 
mainly to England, since these are colonies of Great Brit- 
ain. Some of the imports that must be received in return 
you can probably name. 

II. The East Indies. — Between Australia and Asia are 
a large number of islands, many of them too small to 
place upon the map. What are the names of some of the 
largest of this group, or archipelago, known as the East 
Indies ? The one that you have probably heard about 
most often is Java, from which the Java coffee comes. 



AUSTRALIA 



253 



Among the forests of these islands are many different 
kinds of valuable tropical woods. Sugar, tobacco, pepper, 
spices, and precious stones are other valuable products. 

These islands, like those of the Japanese Empire, are 
the crests of mountains in the sea. Among them are 
many very active volcanoes, some of them having caused 
terrible destruction by their frightful eruptions. The 
islands belong to European countries, and you will find 
the names of these countries marked on the map. 

III. The Philippine Islands. — The principal city on the 
Philippine Islands is Manila, on Luzon Island, where 
Admiral Dewey de- 
stroyed the Spanish 
fleet. 

Notice (Fig. 203) 
that they lie between 
the Japanese Islands 
and the East Indies, 
both of which were 
said to be mountain 
ranges in the sea. 
The Philippines are 
also mountains, form - 
ing a part of the 
same chain. 

There are valuable 
kinds of wood in the forests, and many mineral deposits ; 
but these were never much used by the Spaniards. The 
chief products have been sugar, tobacco, and hemp, which 
is used in making ropes. Now that the United States is 
in control of the islands, it is probable that their mineral 
and other resources will be developed. 




Fig. 224. 

A native house in Manila. In order to be well 
above tbe damp ground, the people live in 
the upper part. Notice the bamboo fence. 



254 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

On these islands dwell several different races. There 
are still many savages there, especially in the dense for- 
ests of the interior (Fig. 99). Some of them are called 
Negritos or little negroes. On the Sulu Islands are 
Mohammedans called Moros. The Tagalogs belong to 
the more. advanced tribes, who have learned the arts of 
civilization from the Spaniards. 

IV. Islands of the Pacific. — There are many hundreds 
of islands in the Pacific Ocean, some of them being tiny 
coral islands, others large and mountainous. They are 
all located where mountain ranges or volcanic peaks rise 
from the great plain of the ocean floor. 

Find the Fiji Islands. They are also British. What 
other group of small islands do you see in that region ? 
Find the Samoan Islands. One of these belongs to the 
United States. What large island is just north of Aus- 
tralia? In what zone does it lie? One part is British, 
one part Dutch, and one part German. All of its prod- 
ucts are tropical, and it is covered with a dense forest 
and inhabited by fierce savages. Very few Europeans 
live there. 

Among the islands of the Pacific we must not forget to 
mention the Hawaiian Islands, for they now form a 
part of our own country. They are situated in the mid- 
Pacific on the way from San Francisco to Australia, and 
consist of a number of islands, the largest being Hawaii. 
All of them are volcanic, and on Hawaii are two of the 
largest volcanoes in the world (Fig. 101). Being in the 
torrid zone, their climate is warm enough for sugar raising, 
and this is one of the principal industries of the islands. 
Where else have we found this industry? Honolulu is 
the capital and largest city. 



AUSTRALIA 255 



REVIEW QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 

I. Australia. Questions. — (1) To what country does Australia 
belong? (2) How does it compare in size with the United States? 

(3) How does the mountain range on the east affect the climate? 

(4) Which, then, is the most valuable part of the country ? (5) Tell 
about the native plants and animals. (6) What animals and plants 
have been imported? (7) What industries have resulted ? (8) Name 
the principal exports. (9) Locate the chief cities. 

Suggestions. — (10) Sketch Australia, putting in the Murray 
River and the principal cities. (11) What other places in the world 
are noted for sheep and cattle raising? (12) For gold mining? 
(13) Read about the great trouble the imported rabbits have caused 
in Australia. (14) Where are the desert countries of the world? 
Make a sketch map to show them. 

II. East Indies. Questions. — (15) Name several of the larger 
islands of the East Indies. (16) What are the products? 

Suggestions. — (17) Why were they named the East Indies? 
(18) Find what spices are used in cooking at your home. (19) Make 
a collection of spices, trying to find where each kind came from. 
(20) See on the map (Fig. 221) to what European countries each of 
the larger islands belongs. (21) Find where the tea and coffee used 
at your home came from. By what route are they probably brought ? 

III. Philippine Islands. Questions.— (22) Where are the Philip- 
pine Islands? (23) Name the principal city. (24) What has re- 
cently made it famous? (25) What are the names of the largest 
islands? (26) How far is Manila from China? (27) What races 
occupy these islands ? 

Suggestions. — (28) Collect some Manila hemp rope. (29) Find 
out about the battle of Manila Bay and also about the war with the 
Filipinos. (30) Collect pictures from the Philippines. 

IV. Islands of the Pacific. Questions. — (31) Find Tasmania ; 
New Zealand ; the Fiji Islands. (32) What large island lies north 
of Australia? Tell about it. (33) Tell about the Hawaiian Islands. 

Suggestions. — (34) Find out something about the Fiji Islands. 
(35) About the Hawaiian Islands. (36) Find out some events that 
have happened on the Samoan Islands. 

For References, see page 261. 



BOOKS OF REFERENCE 1 



McM. means The Macinillan Co., New York; Ginn, Ginn & Co., Boston, 
Mass. ; A. B. C, American Book Co., New York; S. B. C, Silver, Burdett & 
Co., New York; Heath, D. C. Heath & Co., Boston, Mass.; E. P. C, Educa- 
tional Publishing Co., Boston, Mass. ; Scribner, C. Scribner & Sons, New 
York. 



Methods, Aids, etc. 

Geikie, "The Teaching of Geography" (McM., $0.60); King, 
"Methods and Aids in Geography" (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $1.20) ; 
Parker, " How to Study Geography " (D. Appleton & Co., New York, 
$1.50) ; Nichols, " Topics in Geography " (Heath, $0.65) ; Trotter, 
"Lessons in the New Geography" (Heath, $1.00); McMurry, "Spe- 
cial Method in Geography " (Public School Publishing Co., Blooniing- 
ton, 111., $0.50) ; McCormick, "Suggestions on Teaching Geography" 
(same publisher, $0.50) ; McMurry, " A Course of Study in Geogra- 
phy " (Herbartian Society, University of Chicago) ; Frye, "The Child 
and Nature " (Ginn, $0.80) ; Frye, " Teacher's Manual of Methods 
in Geography " (Ginn, $0.50) ; Redway, " Manual of Geography " 
(Heath, $0.65) ; Morton, " Lessons on the Continents " (E. L. Kellogg 
& Co., New York, $0.20; McCormick, "Practical Work in Geog- 
raphy" (A. Flanagan, Chicago, 111., $0.80). 

Journal of School Geography (R. E. Dodge, Teachers' College, 
Columbia University, New York City, $1.00 per year) ; National 

1 These references are not intended to be exhaustive, but, rather, sug- 
gestive. Most, if not all, are to first-class sources. The attempt has been 
to make few references, assuming that the teacher will have others in 
mind. While there may seem to be many here, a careful examination 
will reveal the fact that really few books are referred to. Some of those 
mentioned at the end of Part I will be found useful for Part II also. 

256 



REFERENCES 251 

Geographic Magazine (Washington, D. C, $2.00; includes membership 
to Society) ; Bulletin, American Bureau of Geography (Winona, Minn., 
$1.00 ; includes membership to Bureau) ; " The Statesman's Year 
Book," published each year, gives latest statistics, etc. (McM., $3.00) ; 
Mill, "Hints to Teachers and Students on the Choice of Geographical 
Books" (Longmans, Green & Co., New York, $1.25) ; Bitter, "Com- 
parative Geography " (A. B. C, $1.00) ; Shaler, " Nature and Man in 
America" (Scribner, $1.50); Guyot, "Earth and Man" (Scribner, 
$1.75); Champlin, "Cyclopedia of Common Things" (H. Holt & Co., 
New York, $2.50); Champlin, "Cyclopedia of Persons and Places" 
(same publisher, $2.50); Murche, "Science Beaders " (McM., I and 
II, $0.25 each, III and IV, $0.10 each, V and VI, $0.50 each) ; Lange, 
"Handbook of Nature Study" (McM., $1.00) ; Yonge, "Little Lucy's 
Wonderful Globe" (McM., $0.50); Strong, "All the Year Bound" 
(Ginn, three volumes, $0.30 each); Carpenter, " Geographical Beaders" 
(A. B. C, Vol. II, Asia, $0.60; volume on North America, $0.60); 
Guyot, "Geographical Beader" (A. B. C, 80.60) ; Conner, "Commer- 
cial Geography " (McM., $0.75) ; Tilden, " Grammar School (Com- 
mercial) Geography" (T. B. Shewed & Co., Boston, $1.25); Chisholm, 
" Commercial Geography " (Longmans, Green & Co., New York. $1.00); 
Mill, " General Geography" (McM., $0.90); Lyde, "Man and His Mar- 
kets" (McM., $0.50); Herbertson, "Man and His Work" (McM., 
$0.60) ; Pratt, "American History Stories" (E. P. C, four volumes, 
$0.36 each); Pratt, "Stories of Colonial Children" (E. P. C, $0.40); 
Shaler, "First Book in Geology" (Heath, $0.60); Davis, "Physical 
Geography" (Ginn, $1.25); Tarr, "Elementary Geology" (McM., 
$1.40) ; Tarr, " Elementary Physical Geography" (McM.. $1.40) ; Tarr, 
"First Book of Physical Geography" (McM., $1.10). Excellent 
selections may also be found in many school readers. 

Section I. Form and Size of the Earth. — Andrews, "Seven Little 
Sisters," section on " The Ball Itself " (Ginn, $0.50) ; Irving, " Life 
and Voyages of Christopher Columbus " (G. P. Putnam's Sons, New 
York, $1.75); for Columbus, Magellan, etc., see various school 
histories. Also, poem on " Columbus " by Tennyson D'Anvers, 
"Science Ladders," Vol. I (E. P. C, $0.40); Gee, "Short Studies 
in Nature Knowledge," section on " The Great Globe Itself " (McM., 
$1.10); Bitter, Comparative Geography," First Part (A. B. C, 
$1.00). 



258 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

Section II. Daily Motion of the Earth and its Results. — Redway, 
" Manual of Geography," Chapter VI (Heath, $0.65) ; " Daybreak " 
(poem), Longfellow. 

Section III. The Zones. — Eggleston, "Stories of American Life 
and Adventure," section on " Adventures in Alaska " (A. B. C, $0.50) ; 
Andrews, " Seven Little Sisters," sections on " The Little Brown Baby," 
" Agoonack, the Esquimau Sister," and " How Agoonack Lives " (Ginn, 
10.50); Schwatka, "The Children of the Cold" (E. P. C, $1.25); 
Ballou, " Footprints of Travel," Chapters XXIX and XXX (Ginn, 
$1.00) ; King, " The Picturesque Geographical Readers," First Book, 
Part 2 (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.50). 

Section IV. Heat within the Earth and its Results. — Tarr, " First 
Book of Physical Geography," Chapters I (p. 8), XIX, and XX 
(McM., $1.10) ; Trotter, "Lessons in the New Geography," pp. 16-17 
(Heath, $1.00); Redway, "Manual of Geography," Chapter VII 
(Heath, $0.65) ; Kingsley, "Madam How and Lady Why," section on 
"Volcanoes" (McM., $0.50); Gee, "Short Studies in Nature Knowl- 
edge," Chapter XI (McM., $1.10) ; Kelly, " Leaves from Nature's 
Story Book," Vol. Ill, " The Records of the Rocks " (E. P. C, $0.40). 

Section V. The Continents and Oceans. — Andrews, "Seven Little 
Sisters" (Ginn, $0.50); Ballou, "Footprints of Travel" (Ginn, 
$1.00) ; Gee, " Short Studies in Nature Knowledge," Chapter IV, 
"The Sea" (McM., $1.10); Kelly, "Leaves from Nature's Story 
Book," Vol. Ill, " A Visit to the Bottom of the Ocean " (E. P. C, 
$0.40) ; Shaler, " The Story of our Continent," section on " Coral 
Reefs" (Ginn, $0.75); Tarr, "Elementary Geology," p. 251 (McM., 
$1.40) ; D'Anvers, " Science Ladders," Vol. Ill, Lesson VIII (E. P. 
C, $0.40). Poems: Shelley, " A Vision of the Sea"; Longfellow, 
" The Secret of the Sea " ; Longfellow, " The Wreck of the Hespe- 
rus " ; Holmes, " The Chambered Nautilus " ; Byron, " The Ocean." 

Section VI. Maps. — For References, see bottom of page 110. 

Section VII. North America. — Shaler, " The Story of Our Conti- 
nent" (Ginn, $0.75) ; Lyde, "North America" (McM., $0.50); King, 
" The Picturesque Geographical Readers," Second Book (Lee & Shep- 
ard, Boston, $0.72). 

Section VIII. The United States. — Brooks, "Century Book for 
Young Americans" (The Century Co., New York, $1.50); Brooks, 
"The Story of the United States" (The Lothrop Publishing Co., 



BEFEEENCES 259 

Boston, $1.50) ; Charming, "Students' History of the United States" 
(McM., $1.40) ; Ballou, " Footprints of Travel," Chapters I and XXV 
(Ginn, $1.00); Gannett, "The United States," Stanford's Com- 
pendium of Geography (Scribner, $4.50); King, "The Picturesque 
Geographical Readers," Second Book (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.72) ; 
" Our Country " (poem), Holmes. 

Section IX. New England. — Eggleston, " Stories of American Life 
and Adventure," "Stories of Whaling" and "A Whaling Song" (A. 
B. C, $0.50); Rocheleau, "Great American Industries," Book I, 
" Granite," " Marble," and " Slate " ; Book II, " Cotton Manufactur- 
ing" and " Lumbering" (A. Flanagan, Chicago, each $0.50); Chase 
and Clow, " Stories of Industry," Vol. I, " Lumbering," " Ship Build- 
ing," " Marble and Granite," " Slate and Brick " ; Vol. II, " Manufac- 
turing," "Fisheries," and "Whaling" (E. P. C, each $0.40); King, 
" The Picturesque Geographical Readers," Third and Fourth Books 
(Lee & Shepard, Boston, each $0.56) ; Wilson, " Xature Study in 
Elementary Schools," Second Reader, " The Tree," by Bjornson 
(McM., $0.35). Poems: Whittier, " Mogg Megone " ; "Pentucket"; 
"The Bridal of Pennacook"; " The Merrimack " ; The Xorsemen " ; 
Longfellow, " The Woods in Winter " ; " The Building of the Ship " ; 
"The River Charles"; Emerson, "Boston." 

Section X. Middle Atlantic States. — Chase and Clow, "Stories of 
Industry," Vol. I and Vol. II, various stories on Iron, Coal, Mining, 
Manufacturing, Farming, etc. (E. P. C, each $0.40) ; Rocheleau, 
" Great American Industries," Book I, sections on " Coal Mining," 
"Xatural Gas," "Petroleum," and "Iron" (A. Flanagan, Chicago, 
$0.50) ; Eggleston, " Stories of American Life and Adventure," sec- 
tion on "A Story of Niagara" (A. B. C, $0.50); King, "The Pictur- 
esque Geographical Readers," Third and Fourth Books (Lee & 
Shepard, Boston, each $0.56). 

Section XI. The Southern States. — Rocheleau, "Great American 
Industries," Book II, section on "Cotton and Sugar" (A. Flanagan, 
Chicago, $0.50); King, "The Picturesque Geographical Readers," 
Fourth Book (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.56). 

Section XII. The Central States. — Garland, "Boy Life on the 
Prairie" (McM., $1.50) ; McMurry, "Pioneer Stories of the Missis- 
sippi Valley " (Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, 111., $0.50) ; 
Rocheleau, " Great American Industries," Book II, sections on " Grain 



260 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

Raising," " Wheat Raising," and " Milling " (A. Flanagan, Chicago, 
$0.50) ; King, " The Picturesque Geographical Readers," Fourth Book 
(Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.56). Poems: "When the Frost is on 
the Punk in," Riley ; "Knee Deep in June," Riley; "The Prairies," 
Bryant ; " The Hunter of the Prairies," Bryant. 

Section XIII. The Western States. — Ballou, " Footprints of 
Travel," Chapter XXV (Ginn, $1.00) ; Eggleston, " Stories of Ameri- 
can Life and Adventure," sections on " How Fremont Crossed the 
Mountains," "The Finding of Gold in California," "Descending the 
Grand Canon," and several Indian stories (A. B. C, $0.50) ; Chase and 
Clow, "Stories of Industry," Vol. I, several sections on "Mines and 
Mining " (E. P. C, $0.40) ; King, " The Picturesque Geographical 
Readers," Fifth Book (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.56) ; " The Pass of 
the Sierra" (poem), Whittier; " In the Yosemite Valley," Joaquin 
Miller. 

Section XIV. Alaska. — Ballou, "Footprints of Travel," Chapter 
XXVI (Ginn, $1.00) ; Eggleston, "Stories of American Life and Ad- 
venture," "Adventures in Alaska" (A. B. C, $0.50). 

Section XV. Countries North of the United States. — Coe, " Our 
American Neighbors," Chapters I-XII (S. B. C, $0.60) ; Lyde, " A 
Geography of North America " (McM., $0.50) ; Dawson, " Canada 
and Newfoundland," Stanford's Compendium (Scribner, $4.50); An- 
drews, " Seven Little Sisters," the two sections on Agoonack (Ginn, 
$0.50); Schwatka, "The Children of the Cold" (E. P. C, $1.25); 
Gee, "Short Studies in Nature Knowledge" (McM., $1.10) ; King, 
" The Picturesque Geographical Readers," Second Book (Lee & Shep- 
ard, Boston, $0.72) ; "An Arctic Vision," Bret Harte; "Evangeline," 
Longfellow. 

Section XVI. Countries South of the United States. — Coe, "Our 
American Neighbors," Chapters XIII-XVII (S. B. C, $0.60) ; Conk- 
lin, " Guide to Mexico " (D. Appleton & Co., New York, $1.50) ; Lyde, 
"A Geography of North America" (McM., $0.50); Ballou, "Foot- 
prints of Travel," Chapters XXIII, XXIV, XXV, XXVII, and 
XXVIII (Ginn, $1.00); King, "The Picturesque Geographical 
Readers," Second Book (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.72). 

Section XVII. South America. — Ballou, " Footprints of Travel," 
Chapters XXIX-XXXI (Ginn, $1.00); Coe, "Our American Neigh- 
bors" (S. B. C, $0.60). 



REFERENCES 261 

Section XVIII. Europe. — Lyde, " A Geography of Europe " (McM., 
$0.50) ; Ballou, " Footprints of Travel," Chapters X-XXII (Ginn, 
$1.00) ; Coe, " Northern Europe " (S. B. C., $0.60) ; Pratt, " Northern 
Europe" (E. P. C., $0.40) ; Lyde, "A Geography of the British Isles" 
(McM., $0.50) ; King, " The Picturesque Geographical Readers," Sixth 
Book (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.60) ; Pratt, " Stories of England " 
(E. P. C., $0.40); Andrews, "Seven Little Sisters," "The Little 
Mountain Maiden," and "Louise" (Ginn, $0.50). Poems: Alice 
Carey, "The Leak in the Dike"; Longfellow, "Venice"; "The Bel- 
fry of Bruges " ; " Nuremberg " ; " To the River Rhone " ; " To the 
Avon." Joaquin Miller, "Sunrise in Venice"; "In a Gondola"; "To 
Florence"; Shelley, "Ode to Naples." 

Section XIX. Asia. — Ballou, " Footprints of Travel," Chapters 
III, VIII, and IX (Ginn, $1.00); Andrews, "Seven Little Sisters," 
" The Story of Pen-se," also "Gemila" (Ginn, $0.50) ; Smith, " Life 
in Asia" (S. B. C, $0.60); Pratt, "Stories of India" (E. P. C, 
$0.40); Pratt, "Stories of China" (E. P. C, $0.40). Poems by 
Whittier: "The Holy Land"; "Palestine"; "The Pipes of Luck- 
now." 

Section XX. Africa. — Lyde, "A Geography of Africa " (McM., 
$0.50); Ballou, "Footprints of Travel," Chapters IX and X (Ginn, 
$1.00); Badlam, "Views in Africa" (S. B. C, $0.72); Andrews, 
" Seven Little Sisters," section on " The Little Dark Girl " and 
"Gemila" (Ginn, $0.50). 

Section XXI. Australia, etc. — Ballou, "Footprints of Travel," 
Chapters II, IV, V, VI, VII (Ginn, $1.00) ; Kellogg, " Australia and 
the Islands of the Sea" (S. B. C, $0.68); Pratt, "Stories of Aus- 
tralasia" (E. P. C, $0.40). Poem, " Western Australia," O'Reilly. 



SUPPLEMENT 



CLIMATE, PLANTS, ANIMALS 




ES3 Northern Te 

I 1 .Middle Temperate 



L- -I South Temporete. 
[ | Tropical. 



Fig. 225. 
A map of North America, to show the 
four plant zones. Notice how irregular 
the boundaries are. Compare it with 
the isothermal chart, to see the cause. 
Also examine the relief map of North 
America, Figure 121. 

262 



Climate. — We have 
learned in the previous 
sections that several 
factors combine to deter- 
mine the weather and cli- 
mate of North America. 
The principal factors 
are (1) distance from the 
equator, (2) the changes 
of season, (3) eleva- 
tion of the land, (4) dis- 
tance from the ocean, 
(5) winds and storms, 
and (6) ocean currents. 
All these together de- 
termine the temperature 
and rainfall, which are 
the two most important 
elements of climate. 

The climate of a re- 
gion is one of the most 
important facts concern- 
ing it ; for where tem- 
perature and rainfall are 



PLANTS AND ANIMALS 



263 



favorable, plants usually grow luxuriantly. And since 
plants furnish animals with food, where vegetation is 
luxuriant, animal life may be abundant. 

Since North America extends far north and south, and 
possesses lofty mountain ranges and enclosed plateaus, 
it has a great variety of climates, and, therefore, a great 
variety of plant and animal life (Fig. 225). 

Plants of the North. — The northern part of the conti- 
nent is bitterly cold. In that region there is a vast area 
where the soil is 
always frozen, ex- 
cepting at the very 
surface, which 
thaws out for a few 
weeks in summer. 
On account of the 
frost, trees such as 
we are familiar with 
cannot grow. Their 
roots are unable to 
penetrate the frozen 
subsoil and to 
find the necessary 
plant food. There 
are some willows, 
birches, and a few 
other plants with woody tissue, bark, leaves, and fruit ; 
but instead of towering scores of feet into the air, they 
creep along the surface like vines, and rise but an inch or 
tWiO above ground. Only by thus hugging the earth can 
they escape the fierce blasts of winter and find protection 
beneath the snow. 




Fig. 226. 

Arctic poppies growing on the edge of a snow- 
bank. 



264 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

A few grasses and small flowering plants grow rapidly, 
produce flowers, even close by the edge of snowbanks 
(Fig. 226), and then pass away, all within the few short 
weeks of summer. Some of these plants produce berries, 
which after ripening are preserved by the snows ; thus, 
when the birds arrive in the spring, they find food ready 
for them. 

Animals of the North. — The summer development of 
insects is rapid, like the growth of plants. As the snow 
melts and the surface thaws, the ground becomes wet and 
swampy, and countless millions of insects appear. Among 
them the most common is, apparently, the mosquito. 
There are few parts of the world where this creature is a 
worse pest than on the barrens of North America and the 
tundras of Europe and Asia, as these treeless, frozen lands 
are called. 

Few large land animals are able to thrive in so cold a 
climate and where there is such an absence of plant food. 
The reindeer, or caribou, the musk-ox, polar bear, white 
fox, and Arctic hare are the largest four-footed land ani- 
mals (Fig. 227); and the crow, sparrow, and ptarmigan 
are the most common land birds. 

The ptarmigan changes its plumage to white in winter, and 
other animals of the Arctic, such as the fox, polar bear, baby 
seal, and hare, are also white. This serves to conceal them, in 
that land of snow and ice, so that they may hide from their 
enemies, or steal upon their prey unawares. 

The tiny white fox feeds upon birds and other animal food ; 
but the other land animals, except the polar bear, live upon 
plants, such as berries, grass, and moss. The caribou finds a 
kind of plant, called " reindeer moss," which grows upon rocks 
that rise above the deep winter snows. If it were not for this, 
the reindeer would not be able to live through the long winter. 




CARIBOU 



j THE. M.N.Ct>.,6uFFALO. 



MUSK OX 



Fig. 227. 
Some of the animals of the North. The great auk had such small wings that it could 
not fly. It was killed in great numbers by sailors, and has been completely 
exterminated. 



266 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



While some animals live upon the land in the Arctic 
regions, many more have their homes in the sea, because 
there, excepting at the very surface, the temperature 
never descends below the freezing point. Therefore, 
there is plenty of animal life of all sizes, from the very 

tiniest forms to the 
whale, the largest 
animal in the 
world. During the 
long, cold winter 
the surface of the 
sea freezes over ; 
and then many of 
the sea animals mi- 
grate southward. 
Even the huge 
walrus (Fig. 228) 
moves clumsily 
toward a more 
favorable climate. 
The birds go far- 
thest, especially 
the geese, ducks, and gulls, which fly to Labrador, New 
England, North Carolina, and even farther south, to spend 
the winter where their food is not covered by ice. 




Fig. 228. 
Walrus on the Arctic floe ice. 



Sea birds exist by hundreds of thousands (Fig. 227), building 
their nests upon rocky cliffs in immense numbers. Indeed, 
they are so numerous that, when suddenly frightened, as by 
the firing of a gun, they rise in a dense cloud that obscures the 
sun. Then, by their cries they produce a din that is almost 
deafening. In the water live many seals and walruses (Fig. 
228), the former being so valuable for their oil and skins that 

Vof<; 



PLANTS AND ANIMALS 267 

men go on long voyages to obtain them. The oil comes from a 
layer of fat, or " blubber," just beneath the skin, that serves to 
keep out the cold. 

The seal is the most common of the Arctic sea animals, and 
is the principal food of the Eskimo and the huge polar bear. 
The bear, protected from observation by his white color, 
stealthily creeps upon, his prey, asleep upon the ice ; or, he 
patiently watches until his victim swims within reach, and then 
seizes him in his powerful claws. 

Life on Mountain Tops. — In many respects the life on moun- 
tain tops resembles that of the Arctic regions. On the crests of 
lofty mountains it is cold, and large animals are rare, while the 
plants resemble those of the cold North (Fig. 234). There are 
no trees, though creeping willows and birches abound. Indeed, 
some of the plants are actually the same as, those of the North. 
For instance, on the top' of Mt. Katahdin, Maine, some of the 
plants are of the same species as those thriving in Labrador, 
Baffin Land, and Greenland. Arctic plants also occur on the 
mountain tops in North Carolina. 

Plants and Animals in Western North America. — A 

large area in western United States and Mexico has a 
very slight rainfall, although its temperature is agree- 
able. This arid area includes most of the territory having 
less than twenty inches of rain. In some places, how- 
ever, as near the Pacific coast and upon the mountain 
tops and high plateaus, there is rain enough for forests to 
thrive ; but in most parts of the Far West the climate is 
so dry that there are no trees whatsoever. Indeed, some 
portions of the West are desolate in the extreme and 
almost devoid of life, both plant and animal ; in other 
words, they are true deserts. 

One common plant is the bunch grass, so called because 
it grows in little tufts or bunches. The sage bush, a plant 
with a pale green leaf, named because of its sagelike odor, 



268 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



is found throughout most of this arid region. Other 
common plants are the mesquite, the century plant with 

its sharp-pointed leaves, and 
the cactus with its numerous 
thorns (Fig. 229). In favor- 
able spots, especially in the 
warm southwest, the mes- 
quite grows to large size ; 
and the cactus, which in the 
north is always low and rep- 
resented by only a few kinds, 
in the southwest, as in Ari- 
zona, grows in great variety 
and, in some cases, even to 
the heiarht of trees. 





Fig. 229. 

Giant cactus in the desert of south- 
western Arizona. 

On account of the extreme 
dryness of the climate, these 
plants have a severe struggle 
for existence, and adopt pe- 
culiar means for protecting 
themselves. For example, the 
cactus, unlike other plants, 
has no leaves. It thus ex- 
poses little surface to the air 
for evaporation. In its great, fleshy stem it stores water to use 
through the long, dry seasons, while spines protect it from ani- 



Fig. 230. 

One of the peculiar plants of the arid 
lands, growing to the size of a tree 
in the warm, dry climate of southern 
Arizona. 



PLANTS AND ANIMALS 269 

rnals in search of food. The mesquite also protects itself by- 
spines, and in addition has such large roots that the part of 
the plant under ground is greater than that above. Many of 
these plants, as the mesquite, are so bitter that they are not 
eaten by animals. 

Animals eat few of the arid land plants except the 
grasses, which were once the food of the buffalo or bison 
(Figs. 231 and 236), and are now the support of numerous 
cattle and sheep. The bison, whose home was on the 



Fig. 231. 
Photograph of a young bison. 

prairies and the arid plains east of the Rocky Mountains, 
is now gone ; and few large animals are left in its place. 
The cowardly prairie wolf, or coyote, and the graceful 
antelope and the rabbits, are the most abundant (Fig. 232). 
Among the rabbits is the long-legged jack rabbit, which 
leaps across the plains with astonishing speed, with its 
huge ears thrown back so far that they do not retard its 
progress. 

The traveller through the arid lands meets with few more 
interesting creatures than the prairie dogs, which live in small 
communities, called prairie-dog towns (Fig. 232). Their homes 




PRAIRIE DOG 



krnE.KH.Cn.Ej 



GRIZZLY BEAR 



Fig. 232. 
Some of the animals of the plateaus and mountaius of the Far West. 



PLANTS AND ANIMALS 271 

are in the ground and their food consists of grass. They do 
not venture far from their burrows for fear of the coyotes 
which may be lurking near; and upon the least alarm they 
utter a shrill note and tumble headlong into their burrows. 

There are birds and some lower animals, as the poisonous 
tarantula, centipede and scorpion, besides snakes, especially 
the poisonous rattlesnake (Fig. 232). 

The fierce puma or mountain lion still lives among the 
mountains, and also the ugly cinnamon and grizzly bears 
(Fig. 282), though the latter are now rare and difficult to 
find. Deer and elk inhabit the forest-covered mountains 
of southern Canada and northwestern United States ; and 
among the higher peaks a few mountain goats and sheep 
still live on the more inaccessible rocky crags (Fig. 282). 
The sheep have huge horns much prized by hunters. 

Plants and Animals of the Tropical Zone. — Contrast 
the life in the frozen North and the arid West with that 
in Central America and southern Mexico. In these re- 
gions, which are situated in the torrid zone, the tempera- 
ture is always warm ; and the rainfall, especially on the 
eastern coast, is so heavy that all the conditions are favor- 
able for dense vegetation. 

Indeed, the tangle of growth in the forests is so great that 
it is practically impossible to pass through it without hewing 
one's way. Besides trees and underbrush, there are quantities 
of ferns, vines, and flowers, many of which hang from the trees 
with their roots in the air instead of in the ground. These 
odd plants are able to live this way on account of the dam]) 
air. Among the trees are the valuable rosewood, mahogany, 
ebony, and rubber tree ; and among the flowers are the beauti- 
ful orchids. On account of the continual warmth and mois- 
ture, many plants, like the banana for instance, bear fruit 
throughout the year. 



272 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

In the midst of such luxuriant vegetation, animal life is 
wonderfully varied and abundant. There are the tapir, 
monkey, and jaguar (Fig. 233) ; brilliantly colored birds, 
such as parrots, paroquets, and humming birds ; and mil- 
lions of insects. Scorpions and centipedes abound, and 
ants exist in countless numbers, some in the ground, 
others in decayed vegetation. Serpents, some of them 
poisonous, are common in the forests; and in the rivers 
are fish and alligators, the latter being found as far north 
as Florida and Louisiana. 

The plants and animals of the torrid zone are well adapted 
to their surroundings, like those of the Arctic and the desert. 
The jaguar and ocelot are speckled, or spotted, like a surface 
upon which the sunlight plays when it has struck through 
deep shade ; the brown alligator is in color much like the mud 
banks on which he lies ; and all the brilliantly colored animals 
are in harmony with the intense lights and the bright hues of 
tropical plants. This resemblance to their surroundings aids 
them in hiding, whether from their own enemies, or from the 
creatures which they are seeking for food. 

Plants and Animals in the Temperate Part of North 
America. — Between the frigid and torrid zones, and both 
east and west of the arid region, is an area of moderate 
rainfall and temperature where the vegetation and animals 
differ from those of the other sections. Beginning in the 
warm South and passing northward, we find that both 
animals and plants grow less numerous and less varied 
until, near the Arctic zone, they become scarce and few in 
kind. The pines and oaks of the United States give place 
to the spruce, balsam fir, and maple in Canada; then 
these gradually become stunted and disappear (Fig. 234), 
and beyond this the barrens are reached. 




Fig. 233. 
A few of the animals of the tropical forests. 



274 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



The animals that once inhabited the broad temperate 
zone have been mostly destro} T ed, although some still live 
in the forest and mountain region. They are carefully 
protected by state laws, which prohibit shooting except at 
certain seasons, and then only in small numbers. When 
America was first visited by Europeans, these woods 
abounded in deer, moose, caribou, wolves, and foxes (Fig. 
235). Beavers built dams across the streams, the mink 
and otter fished in the waters, and bears roamed at will. 




Fig. 234. 

Appearance of the trees at the tree line," both on the slopes of mountains and 
near the Arctic zone. 

Among the birds, the eagle was common (Fig. 285), and 
wild pigeons and turkeys were so abundant that they 
were one of the principal foods of the early settlers. 

Some believe that at one time most of eastern United States 
was wooded, including the fertile prairies of the Mississippi 
Valley, from which the trees were burned by tires set by the 
Indians. Grass then sprang up in place of the trees, and the 
prairies became the grazing place for immense herds of bison 
(Fig. 236). The bison, however, like the other animals men- 
tioned, have been mostly destroyed ; thousands upon thou- 
sands were slaughtered for their hides and tonsmes alone, and 




MOOSE 



HEDGEHOG 



Fig. 235. 
Some of the animals of northeastern United States and southeastern Canada. 



276 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



their bones left to whiten upon the plains. There are now no 
wild bison in the United States, except a few which are pro- 
tected by the government in the Yellowstone National Park. 
In this Park, where hunting is prohibited, are numbers of deer 




Fig. 236. 

One of the immense herds of bison that formerly roamed over the treeless 

plains. 

and elk (Fig. 232). There are also black, cinnamon, and grizzly 
bears, which are so tame that they come down to the hotels at 
night to feed upon the garbage. 



LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE 

Need of a Means for Locating Places. — You have doubt- 
less noticed that it has frequently been necessary to refer 
to lines upon the earth, such as the Tropic of Cancer, the 
Equator, the Arctic Circle, etc., in order to locate certain 
places and the boundaries of the zones. But these lines 
are far apart, and there are many places between them to 
which reference must often be made. For instance, sup- 
pose we wished to state on what part of the earth London 
is situated ;, how could it be done ? Of course, by taking a 
long time, it would be possible to describe just where this 
city is ; but cannot some more convenient way be devised ? 

The difficulty is much the same as that which arises in 
a large city. There are thousands of houses in the city, 
as there are thousands of towns and cities in the world. 
No one person knows who lives in most of them, and if a 
stranger were looking for a friend, he might have much 
trouble in finding him. 

The Streets of a City. — In this case the problem may be 
solved in a simple manner. A street running east and west 
may be selected to divide the city into two parts (Fig. 237). 
Any place north of this street is spoken of as being on the 
north side, and south of it as being on the south side. 
The streets to the north and south are numbered from 

277 



278 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

this, as North 1st, North 2d, North 3d ; and South 1st, 

South 2d, South 3d, and so on. Then if a man says that 

N0RTH he lives on North 4th Street, 

J [sorthzj |sd ■— ' L s 4.'— JL one knows immediately that he 

-^ yjd U LJ LJ U L lives on the north side, and 

^yjJJJ LJUUL t } iat t* g house is on the 4th 

-ir^f"-! f ST -| < i— i^r-jr street from this central one. 

west Washington ave. ^.east But a city also extends a 

-,polidpsT-|g— i^p-ir long distance east and west, 

-is— i^i^h— il^irnl and we need to know on what 

irTnrTnnnr P ° street this house 

~l r^ri f™i r~i 1*1 r~i r is to be found. To answer 

SOUTH 

that question, another street 

Map of apart'of a city, to iiius- running north and south, and 
trate the need of naming crossing the east and west 
streets. -i i , j , -i • • i 

ones, may be selected to divide 
the city into east and west parts. The streets on the two 
sides are numbered from this one, as East 1st, East 2d, 
West 1st, West 2d, etc. (Fig. 237). 

Then if a man lives on the corner of North 4th and 
East 3d streets, one knows not only that his home is 
north of a certain line, but east of another line. If the 
blocks, or the space between any two streets, are always 
the same, it will also be easy to tell the distance from each 
of the central streets to the house. 

This plan is not necessary in small towns and villages, be- 
cause the people there know one another, and are able to direct 
strangers easily. Few, if any, cities follow exactly the scheme 
here given ; but many have a system of naming or numbering 
streets somewhat similar to this. 

If you live in a large city, perhaps you can tell just how 
your streets are named or numbered. 



LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE 



279 



f,or th Po/ e gO° N . 



Distance North and South of the Equator {Latitude). — 
Places upon a globe are located in much this manner. 
For example, the equator, which extends around the 
earth midway between the poles, corresponds to the divid- 
ing street running east and west. The distance between 
the equator and the poles, on either side, is divided into 
ninety parts (Fig. 238), corresponding, we might say, to the 
blocks in a city. These, 
however, are each about 
sixty-nine miles wide and 
are called degrees, marked 
with the sign °. 

In making maps people 
think of a line, or a cir- 
cle, extending around the 
earth sixty - nine miles 
north of the equator, and 
called a circle of latitude. 
Any point upon it is one 
degree (1°) north of the 
equator, or 1° North Lati- 
tude (abbreviated to N. 
Lat.). Similar lines are imagined 2°, 3°, and so on up to 
90°, or to the north pole. 

Since all points on any one of these circles are the same 
distance from the equator, and from the other circles of 
latitude, the lines are parallel ; and on that account they 
are called parallels of latitude. See a globe. 

The same plan is followed on the south side, places in 
that hemisphere being in South Latitude (S. Lat.). 

If one finds that a certain place is on the 8th, or the 
50th, or some other parallel, north of the equator, he 




' 20°S. Lat. 
23h J S. Lat. 



SoU th ?<***$?. lat 



Fig. L'38. 

The globe, showing the two hemispheres 
and some of the circles of latitude. 



280 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

knows how far it is north of the equator. San Francisco 
is close to the 38th parallel, Chicago close to the 42d, and 
St. Paul on the 45th (Figs. 148 and 157). Knowing 
this, it is easy to see that Chicago is 4°, or about two 
hundred and seventy-six miles, farther north than San 
Francisco, while St. Paul is 3°, or over two hundred miles, 
farther north than Chicago. 

Of course there are no marks upon the earth to show where 
these lines run, but they are of great use on maps, because they 
help us to locate places. Small maps and globes cannot well 
show the entire ninety parallels on each side of the equator, 
so that usually only every fifth or tenth one is drawn. Exam- 
ine some maps (such as Figs. 123 and 125), to see which ones 
are given. Near what parallel do you live ? 

In learning of the seasons it will be found that on June 
21 the vertical rays of the sun reach farthest north. The 
part of the earth which they reach is 23^° north of the 
equator, and is marked on the maps by the Tropic of 
Cancer (Fig. 238). The Tropic of Capricorn is the same 
distance south of the equator (Fig. 238). 

Knowing now the length of a degree, you can find the width 
of the tropical zone, both in degrees and in miles. What is it ? 
New Orleans is just south of the 30th parallel N. Lat. How 
far is it from the tropical zone ? 

On. the day that the vertical rays of the sun reach far- 
thest north, the entire Arctic Circle is lighted by the sun 
at midnight. This circle is the same distance from the 
pole as the Tropic of Cancer from the equator, that is 
23|°. The Antarctic Circle is the same distance from the 
south pole. 

From this it is evident that we can easily find the lati- 



LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE 



281 



tude of a given place by the help of these parallels, for 
latitude is the distance north or south of the equator. 

East and West Distances on the Earth (Longitude J ) . — 
But how about distance east and west ? It is twenty-five 
thousand miles around the earth at the equator, and some 
means must be found for telling on the map how far 
places are from each other in these directions. 

Imaginary lines are used for this purpose, as before ; 
but this time they extend north and south from pole to 
pole (Fig. 239), aud are 
called meridians, or lines „<$. 

of longitude. In the case 
of the city it makes little 
difference what north 
and south street is chosen 
from which to number 
the others. It is only 
necessary that a certain 
one be agreed upon. 

It is the same with 
these meridians. No one 
is especially important, 
as the equator is, and 
consequently different 
nations have selected dif- 
ferent lines to start from. In France the meridian ex- 
tending through Paris is chosen, in England that through 
Greenwich near London, and in America the one passing 
through Washington is sometimes used. But it is im- 

1 The ancients thought that the world extended farther in an east and 
west than in a north and south direction. Therefore they called the east 
and west, or long direction, longitude ; the north and south direction, 
latitude. 




Fig. 239. 

The earth, cut in halves along the Green- 
wich meridian, showing some of the 
meridians. The meridian 20° is usually 
considered the dividiug line between 
the eastern and western hemispheres. 



282 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



portant that all people agree on some one, so that all maps 
may be made alike. On that account many countries start 
their numbering with the meridian which passes through 
Greenwich. The maps in this book follow that plan. 

In Greenwich is a building, called an observatory, in which 
there is a telescope for the study of the sun, moon, and stars. 
As these heavenly bodies are of great help in finding the lati- 
tude and longitude of places, Greenwich seemed to the English 
a fitting place from which to begin numbering their meridians. 

Commencing with this 
meridian as 0° longitude, 
people measure off degrees 
both east and west of it, 
and think of lines as ex- 
tending north and south 
toward the poles, as they 
do of circles of latitude 
running parallel to the 
equator. Thus there is a 
meridian 1° west, another 
2°, a third 3°, etc. Going 
eastward, they number 1°, 
2°, 3°, in the same way. 

Any place on the 3d 
meridian west of Green- 
wich is said to be in 3° 
West Longitude (W. Long.); if on the 60th meridian, 60° 
W. Long. Any place on the 20th meridian east of Green- 
wich is in 20° East Longitude (E. Long.). New York is 
74° W. Long., while San Francisco is about 123° W. Long. 
Jerusalem is about 35° E. Long. 

Knowing the latitude and longitude of any place, it 




Fig. 240. 
A view, looking down on the north pole, 
to show how the meridians come to a 
point at the north pole. Notice that if 
the 0° meridian were continued it would 
unite with the meridian 180°. 



LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE 



283 



can, by the aid of a map, be as easily located as a house in 
a great city. For instance, Denver is about 40° N. Lat. 
and 105° W. Long. It is therefore far to the north and 
west of New Orleans, which is about 30° N. Lat. and 90° 
W. Long. 



Find the latitude and longitude of some of the large cities on 
the map (Fig. 124). Notice also that only every fifth meridian 
is marked. Compare this with the map of New England (Fig. 
125). Since this map represents a smaller section of country, 
more meridians can be drawn upon it. 

The circles of latitude are parallel to the equator and to 
each other, as you can prove by measuring the distance be- 
tween them on a globe. 
But the meridians 
cannot be parallel on 
a globe, since they 
start from the poles 
and spread farther and 
farther apart until the 
equator is reached. 
Examine some of the 
maps in this book to 
see that the meridi- 
ans are not parallel, 
while the lines of lati- 
tude are. 

You can see how 
this is by taking the peeling from an orange (Fig. 241). The 
edges of each of the quarters spread far apart in the middle, or 
equator, but come together at the ends, or poles, of the orange. 

A degree of longitude is a little over sixty-nine miles at 
the equator ; but it decreases more and more as the poles 
are approached, until at the poles it is nothing, because all 
the meridians meet there at one point. Examine Figure 240, 
or, better still, a globe, to see that this must be true. 




Fig. 241. 

An orange with a part of the peeling removed to 
show how the lines converge toward the poles, 
as the meridians converge on the glohe. 



THE HUMAN RACE 
Divisions of Mankind 

Man, like plants and animals, varies in different parts 
of the world. He is influenced by his surroundings, as 
they are, and in the course of time has developed differ- 
ently in the various lands of the earth. Concerning the 
origin of the human 
race, and its divisions, 
people hold different 
views ; but mankind 
in general may be di- 
vided into four great 
groups. 

Ethiopians. — Alto- 
gether there are about 
one and one-half bill- 
ion human beings up- 
on the earth, or twenty 
times the number in 
the United States. 
Of these the lowest 
are the negroes (Fig. 
242) or Ethiopians, who number about one hundred and 
seventy-five million. This is often called the black race. 
There are many subdivisions of this group, but they are 
all characterized by a deep brown or black skin, short, 
black, woolly hair, broad flat noses, and prominent cheek 
bones. 

284 




Fig. 242. 
An African negro girl. 



THE HUMAN BACE 



285 



The home of the Ethiopians is Africa south of the 
Sahara desert (Fig. 214), though many have been trans- 
ported to other lands as slaves, and have there mingled 
more or less with the other races. In their original home 
the negroes are savages, or barbarians of low type. 

The native Australians (Fig. 243), the Papuans of New 
Guinea, the Negritos of the Philippines, and the blacks on 

some other islands in that 
part of the world resemble 
the negroes most closely, 
though differing from 
them in some important 
respects. They are 
shorter, for example, their 
hair is less woolly, their 
noses straighter, and their 
lips less thick. 

American Indians. — 
A second great division 
of the human race is that 
of the red men or Ameri- 
can Indians, often called 
the red race. It is the 
smallest of the four 
groups, numbering about twenty-two million. These 
people, who in some respects resemble the Mongolian race, 
were in possession of both North and South America 
when Columbus discovered America. They were, how- 
ever, divided into many tribes. AVhile the Indians have 
been largely displaced by white men, many, especially 
in the tropic and Antarctic zones, are still living in the 
savage state. 




Fig. 243. 
A native of New South Wales, Australia. 



286 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



l 



They are distinguished by a copper-colored skin, promi- 
nent cheek bones, black eyes, and long, coarse black hair. 
When discovered 
many were sav- 
ages, while others 
had risen to the 
stage of barbar- 
ism. In fact, the 
Aztecs of North 
America and the 
Incas of South 
America had even 
developed some 
of the arts of civ- 
ilization. 

Mongolians. — 
The third divi- 
sion, the Mongo- 
lian or yellow race, 
numbering about 
five hundred and forty million, are typically Asiatic 
people, the greater number being found in Asia and the 
islands of the Pacific (Fig. 245). Some, as the Finns, 
Lapps, and Turks, have settled in Europe, while the 
Eskimos have spread eastward along the shores of Arctic 
America. 

The Mongolians, typically represented by the Chinese 
and Japanese (Fig. 245), have a yellowish and in some 
cases even a white skin, prominent cheek bones, small 
oblique eyes, a small nose, and long, coarse black hair. 
In places, as on the more remote islands, the Mongolians 
are uncivilized ; but the great majority may be classed as 




Fig. 244. 
South American Indians. 



THE HUMAN BACE 



287 



civilized people, although their standard of civilization 
differs from that of the white race. 

Caucasians. — By far the largest and most civilized of 
the four divisions of mankind is the white or Caucasian 




Fig. 245. 
Japanese ladies. 



race, which numbers about seven hundred and seventy- 
million. Their original home is not known. Some be- 
lieve it to have been in the plateau of central Asia, others 
in the northern part of Africa. With the dawn of his- 
tory the white peoples of Europe were mostly barbarians ; 



288 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



but civilization had begun to develop in southern and west- 
ern Asia and along the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. 

At present the white race occupies most of Europe, 
North and South America, Australia, and large portions 
of Asia and Africa. It 
is the most widely dis- 
tributed of any of the 
four divisions. Besides 
Europeans (Fig. 246) 
it includes the Egyp- 
tians, Arabs, and Abys- 
sinians of Africa ; also 
the Arabs, Persians, 
Armenians, Afghans, and 
Hindus of Asia (Fig. 
247). 

While for various 
reasons the Caucasians 
differ greatly in charac- 
teristics, two main 
branches are recognized : 
(1) the fair type (Fig. 
246), with florid com- 
plexion, light brown, flaxen, or red hair, blue or gray eyes, 
and height above the average ; (2) the dark type (Fig. 
247), with fair skin, dark brown and black hair, often 
wavy or curly, and black eyes. In temperament both are 
active, enterprising, and imaginative, though the fair type 
is more solid, the dark type more emotional. 

Distribution of Races. — For centuries these four great 
divisions of the human race have been changing within 
themselves until there are now many subdivisions of 



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Fig. 246. 
A Belgian peasant girl. 



THE HUMAN BACH 



289 



each group. By war and invasion they have encroached 
upon one another, and have intermixed to some extent. 
But the leaders are the whites, who, having learned the 
use of ships in exploring distant lands, have spread with 



■ 










*V «8V 









Fig. 247. 
A group of Iudian Brahmins, who helong to the dark type of Caucasians. 

a rapidity never seen before. Also, being more advanced 
than the others, the white races have readily conquered 
the weaker people and taken their lands from them. They 
now dominate the whole world, the only division that 
has held out against them being the Mongolians, whose 
very numbers have in large measure served to protect 
them. 



APPENDIX 



CONTINENTS AND PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES 

Note. — The figures 1897, 1901, etc., refer to the year in which the 
estimate was made. Most of the figures are obtained from the "States- 
man's Year Book" for 1902, or from the " Century Atlas." 









\rea in Square Mile 


5 


Population 


North America . . . 8,843,070 


1900 


103,500.000 


United States (with Alaska) 3,616,484 


1900 


76,149,386 


Mexico 767,005 


1900 


13,545,462 


Canada . 






3,653,946 


1901 


5,369,666 


Central America 






181,523 


1900 


4,015,369 


Cuba 






41,655 


1899 


1,572,797 


South America . 






7,681,420 


1900 


41,200.000 


Brazil . 






3,209,878 


1892 


18,000,000 


Argentina 






1,113,849 


1900 


4,794,149 


Peru 






695,733 


1896 


4,609,999 


Chile . 






279,901 


1895 


2,712,145 


Europe 






3,855,828 


1900 


376,400.000 


Russia . 






2,095,616 


1900 


106,264,136 


German Empire 






208,830 


1900 


56,367,178 


Austria- Hungary 






- 264,204 


1900 


46,810,981 


France . 






204,092 


1901 


38,641,333 


British Isles . 






120,979 


1901 


41,605,323 


Italy . 






110,646 


1901 


32,449,754 


Spain . 






197,670 


1897 


18,089,500 


Turkey in Europe 




65,752 


1901 


6,086,300 


Asia (with East Indies) 




16.770.951 


1900 


877,000,000 


Chinese Empire . 




4,234,910 


1901 


399,680,000 


India . 






1,559,603 


1901 


294,266,701 


Japan . 






161,198 


1898 


46,453,249 


Turkey in Asia 






650,394 


1901 


17,545,300 


Siberia . 






4,833,496 


1897 


5,727,090 


Africa 






11,508.793 


1900 


170,000.000 


Kongo State . 






900,000 


1901 


30,000,000 


Egypt . 






400,000 


1901 


9,821,045 


Cape Colony. 






276,775 


1901 


2,350,000 


Transvaal Colony 






119,140 


1901 


1,094,100 



290 





APPENDIX 








201 




Area in Square Miles 


Population 


Australia 


2,972,573 




1901 3,767,443 


New South Wales 


310,367 




1901 1,352,297 


Victoria 


87,884 




1901 1,200,918 


Queensland . 


668,497 




1901 503.266 


South Australia . 


903,690 




1901 362,604 


Tasmania 


26,215 




1901 172,475 


Western Australia 


975,920 




1901 182,553 


SIZE 


OF THE EARTH 






Length of the Earth's Diameter at 


equato 


r 


(miles) 








7,926 


Length of the Equator 


(miles) 






24,902 


The Earth's Surface (square miles) 






196,940,000 


Pacific Ocean (square miles) 






55,660,000 


Atlantic Ocean (square 


miles) 






33,720,000 


Antarctic Ocean and the great southern 


sea sui 




rounding the south pole (square miles) 






30,605,000 


Indian Ocean (square miles) . 






16,720,000 


Arctic Ocean (square miles) . 






4,781,000 


The sea (square miles) . 






141,486,000 


AREA AND POPULATION OF THE 


UNIT] 


ED STATES 




Area in Square Miles 






Population, 1900 


Alabama 


52,250 . 






. 1,828,697 


Alaska 


590,884 








63,592 


Arizona 


113.020 








122,931 


Arkansas 


53,850 








. 1,311,564 


California . 


158,360 








. 1,485,053 


Colorado 


103,925 








539,700 


Connecticut 


4,990 








908,355 


Delaware 


2,050 








184,735 


District of Columbia . 


70 








278,718 


Florida 


58,680 








528,542 


Georgia 


59,475 








. 2,216.331 


Guam .... 


180 






( 


'1887) 8,561 


Hawaiian Islands 


6,449 








154,001 


Idaho .... 


84,800 








161,772 


Illinois 


56,650 








. 4,821,550 


Indiana 


36,350 








. 2,516,462 


Indian Territory . 


31,400 








391,960 


Iowa .... 


56,025 








. 2,231,853 


Kansas 


82,080 








. 1,470,495 


Kentucky 


40,400 








. 2,147,174 


Louisiana 


48,720 








. 1,381,625 



292 



APPENDIX 









Area in Square Miles 




Population, 1900 


Maine ... 


Maryland 






12,210 








1,190,050 


Massachusetts 






8,315 








2,805,346 


Michigan 






58,915 








2,420,982 


Minnesota . 






83,365 








1,751,394 


Mississippi . 






46,810 








1,551,270 


Missouri 






69,415 








3,106,665 


Montana 






146,080 








243,329 


Nebraska 






77,510 








1,068,539 


Nevada ' . 






110,700 








42,335 


New Hampshire 






9,305 








411,588 


New Jersey . 






7,815 








1,883,669 


New Mexico 






122,580 








195,310 


New York . 






49,170 








7,268,012 


North Carolina 






52,250 








1,893,810 


North Dakota 






70,795 








319,146 


Ohio . 






41,060 








4,157,545 


Oklahoma . 






39,030 








398,245 


Oregon 






96,030 








413,536 


Pennsylvania 






45,215 








6,302,115 


Philippine Island 


s 




114,356 ' 




(1901) 8,000,000 


Porto Rico . 






3,550 




(1899) 953,243 


Rhode Island 






1,250 




428,556 


South Carolina 






30,570 






. 1,340,316 


South Dakota 






77,650 






401,570 


Tennessee . 






42,050 






. 2,020,616 


Texas . 






265,780 






. 3,048,710 


Tutuila 






55 






(1891) 3,750 


Utah . 






84,970 






276,749 


Vermont 






9,565 






343,641 


Virginia 






42,450 






. 1,854,184 


Washington 






69,180 






518,103 


West Virginia 






24,780 






958,800 


Wisconsin . 






56,040 






. 2,069,042 


Wyoming . 






97,890 








92,531 



TWENTY-FIVE LARGEST CITIES OF THE UNITED 
STATES 

Note. — The great increase in size of New York is due to the joining 
of Brooklyn and other cities to it, making Greater New York. 



1. New York, N.Y. 

2. Chicago, 111. . 



Population, 
Census of 1900 

3,437,202 
1,698,575 



Population, 
Census of 1890 

1,515,301 
1,099,850 



Philadelphia, Pa. 
St. Louis, Mo. . 
Boston, Mass. . 
Baltimore, Md. 
Cleveland, O. . 
Buffalo, N.Y. . 
San Francisco, Cal. 
Cincinnati, O. . 
Pittsburg, Pa. . 
New Orleans, La. 
Detroit, Mich. . 
Milwaukee, Wis. 
Washington, D.C. 
Newark, N.J. . 

17. Jersey City, N.J. 

18. Louisville, Ky. 
Minneapolis, Minn. 
Providence, R.I. 
Indianapolis, Ind. 
Kansas City, Mo. 
St. Paul, Minn. 
Rochester, N.Y. 
Denver, Col. 



3. 

1. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16 



19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 

24. 

25. 



API 


^ENBIX 






293 


Population, Population, 


Census of 1900 Census of 1890 


. 1,293,697 . . . 1,046,964 




. 575,238 






. 451,770 




560,892 






448,477 




508,957 






.434,439 




381,768 






261,353 




352,387 






255,664 




342,782 






298,997 




325,902 






296,908 




321,616 






238,617 




287,104 






242,039 




285,704 






205,876 




285,315 






204,468 




278,718 






230,392 




246,070 






181,830 




206,433 






163,003 




204,731 






161,129 




202,718 






164,738 




175,597 






132,146 




169,164 






105,436 




163,752 






132.716 




163,065 . 






133,156 




162,608 






133,896 




133,859 . 






106,713 



CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES AND ITS DEPEND- 
ENCIES MENTIONED IN THIS BOOK 



Albany, N.Y. . 
Allegheny, Pa. 
Annapolis, Md. 
Atlanta, Ga. . 
Baltimore, Md. 
Bangor, Me. 
Birmingham, Ala. 
Boston, Mass. . 
Bridgeport, Conn. 
Buffalo, N.Y. 
Butte, Mont. . 
Cambridge, Mass. 
Camden, N.J. 
Charleston, S.C. 



Population, 






Population, 


Census of 1900 Census of 1890 


94,151 . . . 94,923 


129,896 






105,287 


8,402 






7,604 


89,872 






65,533 


508,957 






434,139 


21,850 






19,103 


38,415 






26.178 


560,892 






448,477 


70,996 






48,866 


352,387 






255,664 


30,470 






10.723 


91,886 






7(1,028 


75,935 






58,313 


55,807 






54,955 



294 



APPENDIX 



Chattanooga, Term 
Chicago, 111. . 
Cincinnati, 0. 
Cleveland, 0. . 
Columbus, O. . 
Dallas, Tex. 
Denver, Col. . 
Detroit, Mich. . 
Duluth,'Miun. 
Fall River, Mass. 
Galveston, Tex. 
Gloucester, Mass. 
Grand Rapids, Mich 
Harrisburg, Pa. 
Hartford, Conn. 
Havana, Cuba 
Honolulu 
Indianapolis, Ind. 
Jacksonville, Fla. 
Jersey City, N.J. 
Kansas City, Mo. 
Knoxville, Tenn. 
Lawrence, Mass. 
Los Angeles, Cal. 
Louisville, Ky. 
Lowell, Mass. . 
Lynn, Mass. 
Manchester, N.H. 
Manila, Philippines 
Memphis, Tenn. 
Milwaukee, Wis. 
Minneapolis, Minn. 
Mobile, Ala. . 
Newark, N.J. 
New Bedford, Mass 
New Haven, Conn. 
New Orleans, La. 
New York, N.Y. 
Norfolk, Ya. . 
Ogden, Utah . 
Omaha, Neb. . 
Paterson, N.J. 
Pensacola, Fla. 
Philadelphia, Pa. 
Pittsburg, Pa. . 



Population, 


Population. 


Census of 1900 


Census of 1890 


32,490 . 


29,100 


1,698,575 . 


. 1,099,850 


325,902 . 


. 296,908 


381,768 . 


. 261,353 


125,560 . 


88,150 


42,638 . 


38,067 


133,859 . 


106,713 


285,704 . 


. 205,876 


52,969 . 


33,115 


104,863 . 


74,398 


37,789 . 


29,084 


26,121 . 


24,651 


87,565 . 


60,278 


50,167 . 


39,385 


79,850 . 


53,230 


235,981 (1899) . 





39,306 . 





169,164 . 


105,436 


28,429 . 


17,201 


206,433 . 


163,003 


163,752 . 


132,716 


32,637 . 


22,535 


62,559 . 


44,654 


102,479 . 


50,395 


204,731 . 


161,129 


94,969 . 


77.696 


68,513 . 


55,727 


56,987 . 


44,126 


350,000 (1901) . 





102,320 - . 


64,495 


285,315 . 


204,468 


202,718 . 


164,738 


38,469 . 


31,076 


246,070 . 


181,830 


62,442 . 


40,733 


108,027 . 


81,298 


287,104 . 


242,039 


3,437,202 . 


1,515,301 


46,624 . 


34,871 


16,313 . 


14,889 


102,555 . 


140,452 


105,171 . 


78,347 


17,747 . 


11,750 


1,293.697 . 


1,046,964 


321,616 . 


238,617 



APPENDIX 



295 









Population, 






Population, 


Census of 1900 Census of 1S90 


Portland, Me 50,1-15 . . 36,125 


Portland, Ore. . • 






90,126 






46,385 


Providence, R.I. 






175,597 






132,146 


Pueblo, Col. 






28,157 






24,558 


Reading, Pa. 






78,961 






58,661 


Richmond, Va. . 






85,050 






81,388 


Rochester, N.Y. 






162,608 






133,896 


Rutland, Vt. 






11,199 






11.760 


Saginaw, Mich. 






42,345 






46.322 


St. Louis, Mo. . 






575,238 






451,770 


St. Paul, Minn. 






163,065 






133,156 


Salt Lake City, Utah 






53,531 






44,843 


San Francisco, Cal. 






342,782 






298,997 


Savannah, Ga. . 






54,244 






43,189 


Scran ton, Pa. 






102,026 






75,215 


Seattle, Wash. . 






80.671 






42,837 


Sitka, Alaska 






1,396 






1,190 


Spokane, Wash. 






36,818 






19,922 


Springfield, Mass. 






62,059 






44,179 


Syracuse, N.Y. 






108,374 






88,113 


Tacoma, Wash. 






37,714 






36,006 


Tampa, Fla. 






15,839 






5,532 


Toledo, 0. 






131,822 






81,134 


Trenton, N.J. . 






73,307 






57,458 


Troy, N.Y. 






60,651 






60,956 


Vicksburg, Miss. 






14,834 






13,373 


Washington, D.C. 






278,718 






230.392 


Wheeling, West Va. 






38,878 






34,522 


Wilkes Barre, Pa. 






51.721 






37,718 


Wilmington, Del. 






76,508 






61,431 


Wilmington, N.C. 






20,976 






20,056 


Worcester-, Mass. 






118,121 






84,655 



TWENTY-FIVE LARGEST CITIES OF THE WORLD 



1. London, England. 1901 
Greater London, 1901 . 

2. New York, United States, 1900 

3. Paris, France, 1901 

4. Canton, China, 1898 

5. Berlin, Germany, 1900 

6. Chicago, United States, 1900 

7. Vienna, Austria-Hungary, 1900 



Population 

1.536.063 
6,580,616 
3,437,202 
2,660,559 
2,500,000 
1,888,326 
1,698,575 
1,674,957 



296 



APPENDIX 



8. Tokio, Japan, 1898 . 

9. Philadelphia, United States, 1900 

10. St. Petersburg, Russia, 1897 

11. Constantinople, Turkey, 1901 

12. Calcutta, India, 1901 . 

13. Moscow, Russia, 1897 . 

14. Tientsin, China, 1898 . 

15. Peking, China, 1898 . 

16. Buenos Aires, Argentina, 19U0 

17. Hankau, China, 1897 . 

18. Bombay, India, 1901 . 

19. Glasgow, Scotland. 1901 

20. Hamburg, Germany, 1900 . 

21. Hangchau, China, 1897 

22. Liverpool, England, 1901 . 

23. Fuchau, China, 1897 . 

24. Warsaw. Poland, 1897 

25. St. Louis, United States, 1900 



Population 

1,440,121 

1,293,697 

1,267,023 

1,125,000 

1,121,664 

988,614 

950,000 

900,000 

821,291 

800,000 

770,843 

735,906 

705,738 

700,000 

684,947 

650,000 

638,209 

575,238 



IMPORTANT FOREIGN CITIES 



Adelaide, South Australia, 1901 
Alexandria, Egypt, 1897 
Amsterdam, Netherlands, 1900 
Antwerp, Belgium, 1900 
Athens, Greece, 1896 
Bangkok, Si am, 1898 
Barcelona, Spain, 1897 
Belfast, Ireland, 1901 
Berlin, Germany, 1900 
Berne, Switzerland, 1901 
Birmingham, England, 1901 
Bombay, India, 1901 
Bordeaux, France, 1901 
Brussels, Belgium, 1901 
Budapest, Austria-Hungary, 1900 
Buenos Aires, Argentina, 1900 
Cairo, Egypt, 1897 
Calcutta, India, 1901 . 
Callao, Peru, 1901 
Canton, China, 1900 
Cape Town, Cape Colony, 1891 
Caracas, Venezuela, 1894 



Population 

160,691 
319,766 
520,602 
285,600 
111,486 

" 250,000 
509,589 
348,876 

1,888,326 
64,864 
522,182 
770,843 
257,471 
561,782 
732,322 
82L291 
570,062 

1,121,664 
16,000 

2,500,000 
51,251 
72,429 



APPEXDIX 



297 



Christiania. Norway, 1897 . 
Constantinople. Turkey. 1901 
Copenhagen. Denmark. 1901 
Dresden. Germany, 1900 
Dublin, Ireland, 1901 . 
Edinburgh, Scotland. 1901 
Geneva. Switzerland, 1901 
Glasgow. Scotland. 1901 
Hague, The, Netherlands, 1900 
Halifax, Nova Scotia, 1901 
Hamburg, Germany, 1900 
Havre. France, 1901 
Hongkong, China, 1901 
Jerusalem, Turkey in Asia. 1901 
Johannesburg, Transvaal Colony 
Kimberley. Cape Colony, 1891 
Leipzig, Germany, 1900 
Lima. Peru. 1891 . 
Lisbon, Portugal, 1900 
Liverpool. England. 1901 
London. England, 1901 
London. Greater. 1901 . 
Lyon, France. 1901 
Madras. India, 1901 
Madrid, Spain. 1897 
Malaga. Spain. 1897 . 
Manchester. England. 1901 
Marseille. France, 1901 
Mecca. Turkey in Asia. 1900 
Melbourne. Victoria. 1901 
Mexico. Mexico. 1S95 . 
Milan. Italy. 1901. 
Mocha. Turkey in Asia. 1900 
Montevideo. Uruguay. 1897 
Montreal, Canada. 1901 
Moscow, Russia, 1S97 . 
Munich. Germany, 1900 
Naples. Italy. 1901 
Odessa. Russia. 1897 
Ottawa. Canada. 1901 
Para. Brazil, 1892 
Paris. France, 1901 
Peking. China. 1898 
Prague, Austria-Hungary, 1900 
Quebec. Canada. 1901 . 
Rio. de Janeiro, Brazil, 1890 



1890 



Population 

200.000 
1.125.000 
378.235 
395.319 
286,328 
316,179 
105.139 
735,906 
212.211 

40.787 
705.738 
129.011 
297.312 

12.000 
102.078 

28.71S 
455,089 
103,956 
357,000 
684,947 
4,536,063 
6,580.616 
453.145 
509,397 
512,150 
125,579 
543.969 
494.769 

60.000 
493,956 
344.377 
491.460 
5.000 
249.251 
266.826 
988.614 
499.959 
563.7:11 
405.041 

59,902 

65.000 

2,660,559 

900,000 

201.:.-: i 

68,834 
522,651 



298 



APPENDIX 



Rome, Italy, 1901 . 
St. John, New Brunswick, 1901 
St. Petersburg, Russia, 1897 
Santiago, Chile, 1900 . 
Shanghai, China, 1900 . 
Singapore, Malay Peninsula, 1901 
Stockholm, Sweden, 1900 
Sydney, New South Wales, 1900 
Teheran, Persia, 1897 . 
Tientsin, China, 1897 . 
Tokio, Japan, 1898 
Toronto, Canada, 1901 . 
Trieste, Austria-Hungary, 1900 
Valparaiso, Chile, 1900 
Vancouver, Canada, 1901 
Venice, Italy, 1901 
Vera Cruz, Mexico, 1895 
Victoria, Canada, 1901 
Vienna, Austria-Hungary, 1900 
Warsaw, Poland, 1897 . 
Winnepeg, Canada, 1901 
Yokohama, Japan, 1898 
Zurich, Switzerland, 1901 



Population 

463,000 

40,711 

1,267,023 

291,725 

620,000 

228,555 

300,624 

451,000 

210,000 

950,000 

1,440,121 

207,971 

134,143 

135,674 

26,196 

151,841 

88,993 

20,821 

1,674,957 

638,209 

42,336 

193,762 

152,942 



HEIGHT OF A FEW MOUNTAIN PEAKS 



Mt. Everest, Himalaya Mountains, Asia 

Aconcagua, Andes Mountains, Chrle . 

Mt, McKinley, Alaskan Mountains, Alaska 

Mt. Logan, Coast Ranges, Canada 

Mt. Elburz, Caucasus Mountains, Russia 

Orizaba, Sierra Madre, Mexico 

Mt. St. Elias, Coast Ranges, Alaska 

Mt. Blanc, Alps Mountains, France 

Mt. Whitney, Sierra Nevada Mountains, California 

Mt. Rainier, Cascade Mountains, Washington 

Mt. Shasta, Cascade Mountains, California . 

Pikes Peak, Rocky Mountains, Colorado 

Manna Loa, Hawaiian Islands .... 

Fremont Peak, Rocky Mountains, Wyoming 
Fujiyama, Japan ....... 

Mt. Mitchell, Appalachian Mountains, North Carolina 
Mt. Washington, White Mountains, New Hampshire 
Mt. Marcy, Adirondacks, New York . 



Feet 
29,002 
22,860 
20,464 
19,500 
18,200 
18,314 
18,100 
15,781 
14,898 
14,526 
14,380 
14,108 
13,675 
13,790 
12,365 
6,711 
6,293 
5,344 



APPENDIX 



299 



SOME OF THE LARGEST RIVERS OF THE WORLD 



Name 




Country 


Length 

in Miles 


Basin Area 


Ocean 


Missouri-M ississippi 


United States 


4,300 


1.257,000 


Atlantic 


Nile . 




Africa 


3.400 


1,273,000 


Atlantic 


Amazon 




South America 


3,300 


2,500,000 


Atlantic 


Ob . . 




Siberia 


3,200 


1,000,000 


Arctic 


Yangtse Kiang 




China 


3,200 


548,000 


Pacific 


Kongo . 




Africa 


2,900 


1,200,000 


Atlantic 


Lena 




Siberia 


2,800 


950,000 


Arctic 


Hoang-Ho . 




China 


2,700 


570.000 


Pacific 


Niger . 




Africa 


2,600 


563,300 


Atlantic 


Plata . 




South America 


2,580 


1,200,000 


Atlantic 


Mackenzie . 




Canada 


2,000 


590.000 


Arctic 


Volga . 




Russia 


2,400 


563,300 


Caspian 


St. Lawrence 




North America 


2,200 


519,000 


Atlantic 


Yukon 




Alaska 


2,000 


440,000 


Pacific 


Indus . 




India 


1,800 


372,700 


Indian 


Danube 




Europe 


1,770 


300,000 


Atlantic 


TEN OF r 


rHE GREAT LAI 


:es of the world 


Name 




Length Breadth A 
n Miles in Miles 


u'ea in Square 
Miles 


Country 




Caspian 




680 270 


169,000 


Russia 




Superior 




390 160 


m 31,200 


U.S. and Canada 


Victoria Nyanza 




230 220 


30,000 


Africa 




Aral 




225 185 


26,900 


Asiatic Eussia 


Huron 




250 100 


17,400 


U.S. and Canada 


Michigan 




335 85 


20,000 


United States 


Tanganyika 




420 50 


12,650 


Africa 




Baikal 




397 45 


12.500 


Siberia 




Erie 




250 58 


10,000 


U.S. and C 


anada 


Chad (a shallow ' 


akc 


which grows 








very large in 


:he 


rainy season 


about 






and shrinks in 


the 


dry season) 


10,000 


Africa 




APPROXLMATI 


2 AVERAGE HEK 


JHT OF 


SOME PLATEAUS 










Feet 


Tibet . 








10-1 


5,000 


Bolivia 








10-1 


3,000 


Spain 








2,000- 


3,000 


Mexico 








5- 


li.000 


Western Uni 


ted States Plateau 




5- 


6,000 


Brazil 








2,000- 


2,500 



INDEX OF PLACES AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY. 



KEY TO PRONUNCIATION. 



a, as in fat ; a, as in fate ; a, as in far ; a, as in fall ; e, as 
in pen ; e, as in mete ; e, as in her ; i, as in pin ; l, as mpiyie ; o, as in 
not ; 5, as in note ; o, as in move ; u, as in tub ; u, as in mute ; u, as in 
pull ; #, as in get ; g, as in gem ; c, as in cat ; c , as in cent. 

A double dot under a or o (a, o) indicates that its sound is shortened to 
that of w in but. 

Italicized letters are silent. The sign ' tells upon which syllable the 
accent is placed. The numbers refer to pages in the book excepting where 
Fig. is before them, when they refer to figures in the book. 



Ab-ys-sin'-i-a, 244. 

A-con-ca'-gua (gwa), Fig. 177. 

A-crop'-o-lis, 224. 

Ad'-e-laide, 252. 

Ad-i-ron'-dacks, 39, 151. 

Ad-ri-at'-ic, 221, 224. 

Af-g/ian-is-tan', Fig. 203. 

Af'-ri-ca, 133, 242. 

Al-a-ba'-ma, 159. 

A-las'-ka, 188. 

Al'-ba-ny (ni), 150. 

Aleutian (a-lu'-shun), Fig. 203. 

Al-ex-an'-dri-a, 244. 

Al-ge'-ri-a, Fig. 214. 

Allegheny (al'-e-ga-ni) , 41, 154, 

155. 
Alps, 21. 

Am'-a-zon, 199, 201. 
Am'-ster-dam, 217. 
Amur (a-moor'), Fig. 203. 
Andes (an'-dez), 199, 204. 
An-dros-cog'-grin, 145. 



An-nap'-o-lis, 156. 
Antarctic (ant-ark'-tik) , 134. 
An-til'-les (lez), 198. 
Ant'-werp, 217. 
Ap-^a-lach'-i-ans, 139, 153, 154, 

159', 160. 
A-ra'-bi-a, 232. 
Ar'-al, Fig. 203. 
Ar'-a-rat, Fig. 203. 
Arctic (ark'-tik), 133. 
Ar-gen-ti'-na (te), 203. 
Ar-i-zo'-na, 176. 
Ar'-kan-sas (saw), 159. 
Asia (a'-shia), 132, 230. 
Ath-a-bas'-ca, Fig. 123. 
Ath'-ens (enz), 224. 
AUan'-ta, 160. 
At-lan'-tic, 63, 134. 
Aw-gus'-ta, Fig. 125. 
Aus-tra'-li-a, 133, 249. 
Aus'-tri-a, 223. 
A-zores f (zorz'), Fig. 214. 



301 



302 



INDEX 



Baf '-/in Land, 193, 

Ba-ha'-ma, 198. 

Baikal (bi'-kal), Fig. 203. 

Bal'-tic, 211, 213. 

Bal'-ti-inore, 149, 156. 

Ban'-gor, 145. 

Bang-kok', 240. 

Bar-ce-lo'-na, 220. 

Bat'-on Rouge (roozh), Fig. 140. 

Bel'-fast, or (fast), 209. 

Bel'-gi-um, 217. 

Ben-gal', Fig. 203. 

Be'-ring Sea, Fig. 203. 

Ber-lin', 216. 

Ber-mu'-da, 198. 

Berne, 223. 

Bir'-ming-kam (Ber), Ala., 160. 

Bir'-ming-ham (um), Eng., 209. 

Bo-go-ta', Fig. 177. 

Boise (boi'-ze), Fig. 157. 

Bo-kfta'-ra, Fig. 203. 

Bo-liv'-i-a, Fig. 177. 

Bom-bay', 239. 

Bordeaux' (bor-do'), 218, 219. 

Bor'-ne-o, Fig. 221. 

Bos'-ton, 37, Q6, 142, 143, 147. 

Bra/i-ma-pu'-tra (poo), Fig. 203. 

Bra-zil', 200. 

Bridge'-port, 147. 

Brit'-ish Isles, 207. 

Brook'-lyn (lin), 149. 

Brus'-sels, 217. 

Bu'-da-pest (Boo), 223. 

Buenos Aires (bwa'-nos i'-res), 

203. 
Buf'-fa-lo, 150, 151, 152. 
Bul-ga'-ri-a, 225. 
Burma (ber'-ma), 239. 
Butte (but), 181, 

Cairo (ki'-ro), Egypt, 244. 
Cal-cut'-a, 239. 
Cal-i-for'-ni-a, 179. 
Cal-la'-o, 206. 



Cam'-hvidge, 142. 
Cam'-den, 153. 
Can'-a-da, 140, 190. 
Can'-cer, Tropic, 120. 
Can-ton', 236. 
Cape Town, 248. 
Cape Verde Islands, Fig. 214. 
Cap'-ri-corn, Tropic, 120. 
Ca-ra'-cas, 203. 
Car-i&-be'-an, 197. 
Cas-cade' Range, 177. 
Cas'-pi-an, 213. 
Cas-tine' (ten), 65. 
Cats'-kilfe, 151. 

Caucasus (ka'-ka-sus) , Fig. 183, 
Cayenne (ka-yen'), Fig. 177. 
Celebes (sel'-e-bez), Fig. 221. 
Qen'-tral -Amer'-i-ca, 140, 197. 
Ceylon' (se'-ion'), Fig. 203. 
Chad, Fig. 214. 

Cham-plai'n' (sham), Fig. 132. 
Charles'-ton (charlz), 165. 
Chat-fa-noo'-ga, 160. 
Ches'-a-peake, 149. 
Cheyenne (shi-en'), Fig. 157. 
Chi-ca'-go (She), 170, 171. 
Chile (Chil'-a), 205. 
Chim-bo-ra'-zo, 14. 
Chl'-na, 100, 235. 
Chris-ti-a'-ni-a (ne-a), 212. 
Qin-^ift-na'-ti, 174. 
Cleve'-land, 173. 
Coast Ranges, 177. 
Co-lpm'-bi-a (be-a), 205. 
Col-O-ra'-do, 180. 
Col-o-ra'-do Can'-yon, 178. 
Co-lum'-bi-a (be-a) District, 156. 
Co-lum'-bi-a (be-a) River, 185. 
Co-lum'-bus, 174. 
Con-nect'-i-cut, 146. 
Con-stan-ti-no'-ple, 225. 
Co-pen-ha'-gen, 212. 
Cor-dil-ler'-as, 177. 
Cor'-inth, 224. 



INDEX 



303 



Cor'-si-ca, Fig. 183. 
Crete, Fig. 183. 
Cu'-ba, 112, 197. 

Dal'-Zas, 161. 

Dan'-ube, 223, 225. 

Dar'-ling River, 250. 

Dead Sea, 55. 

Del'-a-ware, 149. 

Den'-mark, 212. 

Den'-ver, 180. 

Des Moines (de-moin') , Fig. 148. 

De-troit', 173. 

Dnieper (ne'-per), Fig. 183. 

Dniester (nes'-ter), Fig. 183. 

Dres'-den (drez), 216. 

Dub'-lin, Fig. 183. 

Duluth (Do-looth'), 172. 

Dwina (dwe'-na), 183. 

East In'-di-a Islands, 133, 252. 
Ecuador (ek'-wa-dor) , 205. 
Edinburgh (ed'-n-bur-o) , 209. 
E'-gypt, 244. 
El'-be, 215. 

El-burz' (boorz), Fig. 183. 
England (ing'-land), 100, 208. 
E'-rie, Lake, 151. 
Es'-ki-mos (moz), 122, 193. 
Eurasia (u-ra'-she-a) , 130. 
Europe (u'-rop) , 132, 207. 
Ev'-er-est, Mt., 230. 

FalZ River, 147. 
Fiji (fe'-je), 254. 
Flor'-i-da, 162. 
For-mo'-sa, 237. 
France (frans), 217. 
Fu-ji-ya'-ma (foo), 270. 

Gal'-ves-ton, 165. 
Ganges (gan'-jez), 239. 
Gen-e-see', 152. 
Ge-ne'-va, 223. 



Geor'-gi-a, 162. 

Ger'-ma-ny (na), 214. 

Gi-bral'-tar, 242. 

Glas'-gow, 209. 

Gloucester (glos'-ter), 73, 143, 185. 

Gobi (go'-be), 231. 

Grand Rap'-ids, 173. 

Great Britain (brit'-n), 207. 

Great Lakes, 53, 58. 

Great Salt Lake, 55, 182, 183. 

Greece (Gres), 224. 

Green'-land, 193. 

Guam (Gwam), Fig. 221. 

Guiana (ge-a'-na), 203. 

Gutk'-rie, Fig. 140. 

Haiti (ha'-ti), 198. 

Hal'-i-fax, 192. 

Ham '-burg (berg), 215. 

Har'-ris-burg (berg), 154. 

Hart'-fprd, 147. 

Ha-van'-a, 197. 

Havre (a'-vr),218. 

Hawaii (ha-wa'-e), 254. 

Hawaiian (ha^wa'-yan) Islands, 124, 

135, 186, 254. 
Hel'-e-na, Fig. 157. 
Him-a-la'-ya, 230. 
Ho-ang-ho', Fig. 203. 
Hol'-Zand, 216. 
Hong'-kong, 236. 
Ho-no-lu'-lu (loo'-loo),254. 
Hud'-son River, 150. 
Hun'-ga-ry (ray), 223. 
Hu'-ron, Lake, Fig. 148. 

Ige'-land, 212. 
I'-da-h5, Fig. 157. 
Hlinois (il-i-noi'), 168, 169. 
Iloilo (e-lo-e'-lo), Fig. 221. 
In'-di-a, 238. 
In'-di-an, 134. 
In-di-an'-a, 169. 
In-di-an-ap'-o-lis, 95, 174. 



304 



INDEX 



In'-di-an Ter'-ri-to-ry, 165. 

In'-do Cbi'-na, 240. 

In'-dus, 239. 

I'-o-wa, 168. 

Ireland (I'-er-land), 207. 

Ir-kutsk' (kotsk), Fig. 203. 

It'-a-ly (la), 220. 

Jack'-son-viHe, 165. 
Jamaica (ja-ma'-ka), 198. 
Ja-pan', 237. 
Ja'-va, 252. 

Jersey (jer'-zi) City, 149. 
Je-ru'-sa-lem (ro), 232. 
Johannesburg (yo-ban'-es-berg) , 
247. 

Kam-chat'-ka, Fig. 203. 
Kan'-sas (zas), 167. 
Kan'-sas (zas) City, 174. 
Ka-taA'-din, Fig. 125. 
Ken-ne-bec', 145. 
Ken-tuck'-y, 168. 
Kim'-ber-ley, 247. 
Klon'-dlke, 188, 191. 
ITnox'-vilZe, 160. 
Kon'-go, 246. 
Ko-re'-a, 237. 

Lab-ra-dor' (door), 190. 
Lacbine (La-sben') Rapids, 191. 
La-drone', Fig. 221. 
Lawrence (la'-rens), 147. 
Leipzig (lip'-tsig), 216. 
Le'-na, Fig. 203. 
Li'-ma (le) , 205. 
Lis'-bon (liz),220. 
Liv'-er-pool, 209. 
Loire (lwar), Fig. 183. 
Lon'-don (lun), 208, 210. 
Los An'-ge-les, 184, 186. 
Louisiana (lo-e-zi-an'-a), Fig. 140. 
Louisville (lo'-is-vil), 174. 
Low'-eU, 147. 



Lu-zon' (16), 253. 
Lynn (lin), 147. 
Lyon (li'-on), 218. 

Mackenzie (ma-ken'-zi), 139. 
Mad-a-gas'-car, Fig. 214. 
Ma-dei'-ra, Fig. 214. 
Ma-dras', 239. 
Ma-drid', 220. 
Maine, 144. 
Mal'-a-ga, 220. 
Ma-la?/', Fig. 203. 
Man'-cbes-ter, Eng, 209. 
Man'-cbes-ter, N.H., 146, 147. 
Man-chii'-ri-a, Fig. 203. 
Ma-nil'-a, 253. 
Man-i-to'-ba, 191. 
Marseille (mar-sal'), 219. 
Maryland (mer'-i-land), 149. 
Mas-sa-cbu'-setas, Fig. 125. 
Mat'-£er-born, 222. 
Mau'-na Lo'-a, 270. 
Mec'-ca, 232. 

Med'-i-ter-ra'-ne-an, 231, 242. 
Me-kong' (ma), Fig. 203. 
Mel'-bourne (bern), 252. 
Mem'-pbis (fis), 164. 
Mer'-?'i-mac, 146. 
Me-sa'-bi, 169. 
Mex'-i-co, 140, 195. 
Mex'-i-co City, 197. 
Micb'-i-gan (misb), 169. 
Micb'-i-gan (misb), Lake, 171. 
Mi-lan', 222. 
Mil-waw'-kee, 171. 
Min-da-na'-o (men), Fig. 221. 
Min-do'-ro (men), Fig. 221. 
Min-ne-ap'-o-lis, 172. 
Min-ne-so'-ta, 168, 169. 
Mis-sis-sip'-pi, 172. 
Mis-sis-sip'-pi River, 31, 42, 46, 51, 

139, 159. 
Mis-sow' -ri, 159, 173. 
Mo-bile' (bel), 165. 



INDEX 



305 



M5'-cAa, 233. 

Mo-ham'-me-dan, 225, 232. 
Mo'-hawk, 150J'l61. 
Mon-go'-li-a, Fig. 203. 
Mo-non-ga-he'-la, 41. 
Mon-ta'-na, 181. 
Mont Blanc, 21, 23. 
Mon-te-ne'-gro (na), 225. 
Mon-te-vid'-e-o, 203. 
Mont-pe'-li-er (Iyer), Fig. 125. 
Mont-re-al', 192. 
Moose -head Lake, 56. 
Mo-roc'-co, Fig. 214. 
Mo'-ros, 254. 
Mos'-coto, 213. 
Mu'-nicft, 216. 
Mur'-ra?/ River, 250. 

Nan-tuck'-et, Fig. 125. 

Na'-ples (plz), 221. 

Nash'-vMe, Fig. 140. 

Ne-bras'-ka, 167. 

Ne-gri'-t5s (gre'-toz), 254. 

Neth'-er-lands, 216. 

Ne-va'-da, 181. 

New'-ark, 149. 

New Bed'-ford, 147. 

New Cal-e-do'-ni-a, Fig. 221. 

New Eng'-land (ing'), 93, 142. 

New'-found-land, 190. 

New Guinea (gin'-i), Fig. 221. 

New Hamp'-shire, 142. 

New Ha'-ven, 142, 147. 

New Heb'-ri-des (dez), Fig. 221. 

New Jersey (jer'-zi), 153. 

New Mex'-i-co, 176. 

New Or'-le-ans, 51, 87, 163, 164. 

New South Wales (Walz), 249. 

New York, 65, 66, 89, 96, 149, 152. 

New ZeV-land, 252. 

Ni-ag'-a-ra Falls, 152. 

Nic-a-ra'-gua (gwa), Fig. 123. 

Ni'-ger, 246. 

Nile, 46, 244. 



Nor'-foZk, 156. 

North A-mer'-i-ca, 129, 138. 

North Car-o-ll'-na, Fig. 140. 

North Da-ko'-ta, Fig. 148. 

North'-freld, 37. 

Nor'-way, 211. 

No'-va Sco'-tia (Sco'-sha), 190. 

Ob, Fig. 203. 

O-des'-sa, 213. 

Og'-den, 183. 

O-hi'-o, 45, 168, 169. 

Ok-la-ho'-ma, 160, 165. 

O-lym'-pi-a, Fig. 157. 

O'-ma-ha, 174. 

On-ta'-ri-o, Lake, Figs. 132, 171. 

Or'-e-gon, 185. 

O-ri-no'-co, 199, 202. 

O-ri-za'-ba, 271. 

Ot'-«a-wa, 192. 

Pa-cif'-ic, 134. 
Pi£-la-wan', Fig. 221. 
Pal'-es-tine, 232. 
Pan-a-ma/ Canal, 186. 
Pan-a-ma' Is^-mus, 129, 197, 205. 
Panay (Pa-ni'), Fig. 221. 
Pa-ra', 201. 

Par ? -a-guay (gwl), 199. 
Par-a-mar'-i-bo, Fig. 177. 
Par'-is, 218. 

Pat-a-go'-ni-a, Fig. 177. 
Pat'-er-son, 150. 
Pe-king',"236. 
Pen?j-syl-va'-ni-a, 149. 
Pe-nob'-scot, 145. 
Pen-sa-co'-la, 165. 
Per'-sia (sha), 232. 
Pe-ru' (ro), 205. 
Petchora (pech-6'-ra) , Fig. 183. 
Phil-a-del'-phi-a, 66, 149, 153, 156, 
Phil'-ip-pine, 121, 186, 253. 
Phoe'-nix, Fig. 157. 
Pierre (pe-ar'), Fig. 148. 



306 



INDEX 



Pitts-burg (berg), 41, 154, 155, 156. 

Pla'-ta, 203. 

Po-po-cat-e-pe'-tl, 195. 

Port Ar'-thur, 285. 

Port'-land, Me., 143, 147. 

PortMand, Oregon, 185, 186. 

Por'-to Ri'-co (re'-ko), 198. 

Por'-tu-gal, 219. 

Pp-to'-mac, 156. 

Poughkeepsie (po-kip'-si) , 150. 

Prague, 224. 

Pribilof (pre'-be-lof) Islands, 189. 

Prov'-i-dence, 143, 147. 

Pueblo (pweb'-lo), 15, 180. 

Pu'-get Sound, 185. 

Pyrenees (pir'-e-nez), 219. 

Quebec (kwe-bek'), 192. 
Queens'-land, 249. 
Qui-to (ke'-to), Pig. 177. 

Eainier (ra'-ner), Pig. 157. 

Raleigh (ra'-li), Pig. 140. 

Read'-ing, 154. 

RMne, 214, 215. 

R/iode Is'-land, Fig. 125. 

Rich'-mond, 157. 

Rio de Janeiro (re'-o de zha-na'-ro) , 

202. 
Rio Grande (re'-o), 139. 
Roch'-es-ter, 85, 152. 
Rock'-y Mountains, 33, 36, 139, 177. 
Rome, 220. 
Rou-ma'-ni-a, 225. 
Russia (rush'-a), 212. 
Rut'-land, 144!' 

Sac-ra-men'-to, Pig. 157. 

Sag'-i-n§,w>, 173. 

Sa-ha'-ra, 242. 

St. An'-tho-ny (ni) Palls, 172. 

St. Joftn, 192. 

St. Law'-renge, 53, 139, 192. 

St. Louis (lo'-is), 42, 173. 



St. Paul, 88, 172. 

St. Pe'-ters-burg (berg), 213. 

Salt Lake City, 182. 

Sa-mar', Fig. 221. 

Sa-mo'-a, 254. 

San Fran-cis'-co, 66, 180, 185, 186. 

San'-taF6 (fa), Fig. 157- 

San-ti-a'-go (te), 205. 

Sar-din'-i-a, Fig. 183. 

Sa-van'-na7i, 165. 

Scot'-land, 208. 

Scran'-ton, 155. 

Se-at'-Zle, 185, 186. 

Seine*(san), 218. 

Seoul (sol), Fig. 203. 

Ser'-vi-a, 225. 

Shang-hai' (hi), 236. 

Shas'-ta, Fig. 124. 

Si-am', 240. 

Sl-be'-ri-a, 234. 

Si-er'-ra (se) Mad'-re (ra),Fig. 123. 

Si-er'-ra (se) Ne-va'-da, 20, 177. 

Sin'-ga-pore, 240. 

Sit'-ka, 188, 189. 

South A-mer'-i-ca, 129, 199. 

South Car-o-li'-na, 159. 

South Da-ko'-ta, Fig. 148. 

Spam, 100, 219. 

Spo-kane', 185. 

Spring'-freld, 147. 

Stock'-holm, 212. 

Sucre (soo'-kra), Fig. 177. 

Su-dan (So-dan'), 246. 

Su-ez' (so), 245. 

Sulu (so-lo'), 254. 

Su-ma'-tra (so), Fig. 221. 

Gu-pe'-ri-or, Lake (so), 150, 169. 

Swe'-den,"211. 

Swit'-z'er-land, 132, 222. 

Syd'-ney, 252. 

Syr'-a-cuse, 150, 152. 

Ta-co'-ma, 185, 186. 
Ta-gal'-ogs, 254. 



INDEX 



307 



Tal-Za-has'-see, Fig. 140. 

Tam'-pa, 165. 

Tan-gan-yi'-ka (ye), Fig. 214. 

Tas-nia'-ni-a (taz), 252. 

Te-heran', Fig. 203. 

Ten-raes-see', Fig. 140= 

Tex'-as, 159, 161. 

Thames (temz) , 208. 

The Hague (hag), 217. 

Tib'-et, Fig. 203. 

Tientsin (te-en'-tsen'), 236. 

Ti-er'-ra del Fue'-go (fua), Fig. 177. 

Tim-buk'-tu (to) , 248. 

Ti-ti-ca'-ca (te-te),Fig. 177. 

To'-ki-o (ke), 238. 

To-le'-do, 173. 

To-pe'-ka, Fig. 148. 

To-ron'-to, 192. 

Tren'-ton, 153. 

Trieste (tre-est'), Fig. 183. 

Trin-i-dad', 203. 

Trip'-o-li, Fig. 214. 

Troy, 152. 

Tu'-nis, Fig. 214. 

Tur-kes-tan' (Ter), Fig. 203. 

Turkey (ter'-ki), 100, 225. 

tj-ni'-ted States, 97, 140, 141. 
U'-ral Mountains, 212, 234. 
U-ru-guay (6-ro-gwI'), 203. 
U'-taft, 181. 

Val~pa-rai'-so, 205. 
Van-cou'-ver (ko), 192. 
Ven-e-zue'-la (zwe), 202. 
Ven'-iqe, 221. 
Ve'-ra Cruz (kroz), 197. 



Ver-mont', 144. 
Ve-su'-vi-us (so), 125, 221. 
Vicks'-burg (berg), 164. 
Vic-to'-ri-a, Australia, 249. 
Vic-to'-ri-a, Canada, 192. 
Vic-to'-ri-a Ny-an f -za, Fig. 214. 
Vi-en'-wa, 223. 
Yir-gin'-i-a (ver), 157 
Vis'-tu-la, Fig. 183. 
Vol'-ga, 213. 

"Wales (walz), 208. 
War'-sato, Fig. 183. 
Wash'-ing-ton (city), 97, 98, 99, 

156, 157. 
Wash'-ing-ton (state), 185. 
West Indies (in'-diz), 197. 
West Vir-gin'-i-a (ver), 157. 
Wheel'-ing, 157." 
White Mountains, 17. 
Wilkes Barre (wilks'-bar-a), 155. 
Wil'-ming-ton, Del., 153. 
Wil'-ming-tpn, N. C, 165. 
Win'ni-peg, 192. 
Wis-con'-sin, 169. 
Worcester (wiis'-ter), 147. 
Wy-o'-ming (wi), Fig. 157. 

Yang'-tse-ki-ang (ke), Fig. 203. 

Yel'-Zow-stone, 177. 

Yenisei (yen-e-sa'-e) , Fig. 203. 

Yo-ko-ha'-ma, 238. 

Yo-sern'-i-te, 20. 

Yu'-kon, 139, 189. 

Yu-ca-tan', Fig. 123. 

Zu-rich (zo'-rik),223. 



FIRST BOOK OF 

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

By RALPH S. TARR, 

Professor of Dynamic Geology and Physical Geography 
at Cornell University. 

i2mo. Illustrated. Half leather. $i.io, net. 



" The style is simple, direct, and the illustrations helpful; the book, 
indeed, being so attractive that one hopes it will inspire even in the 
pupil who gives it briefest time a longing to know more of the marvels 
of our world." — Providence Journal. 

" Although intended for school use, there are few readers who will 
not be profoundly interested in the volume, which is profusely illus- 
trated. Technical terms are avoided as far as possible, and where they 
are used they are clearly explained." — Boston Traitscript. 

" This book is packed with information needed by every grammar- 
school pupil; but what signifies vastly more, the pupil gets this infor- 
mation in a way that gives thorough discipline — in observation, careful 
reading, discriminating thinking. This book is the best possible proof 
of the statement that all new science work depends for its value upon 
being rightly taught. This book is an admirable presentation of prac- 
tical pedagogy." — Journal oj Education. 

" The style of Professor Tarr's book is literary, scholarly, and sane; 
a pleasing relief from the disjointed paragraphs of some of his con- 
temporaries. . . . This book will prove a formidable rival to the best 
physical geographies now in the field. " — Educational Review. 

" No written description of the book can do justice to it. It will well 
repay personal examination." — New York Education. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK. 



ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 

OF TH* 

UNITED STATES, 

WITH BRIEFER MENTION OF FOREIGN MINERAL PRODUCTS 

By RALPH S. TARR, B.S., P.G.S.A., 
Assistant Professor of Geology at Cornell University. 

Second Edition. Revised. $3.50. 



COMMENTS. 

"I am more than pleased with your new 'Economic Geology of the United 
States.' An introduction to this subject, fully abreast of its recent progress, and 
especially adapted to American students and readers, has been a desideratum. The 
book is admirably suited for class use, and I shall adopt it as the text-book for instruc- 
tion in Economic Geology in Colorado College. It is essentially accurate, while 
written in a pleasant and popular style, and is one of the few books on practical 
geology that the general public is sure to pronounce readable. The large share of 
attention given to non-metallic resources is an especially valuable feature." — Francis 
W. Cragin, Professor of Geology, Mineralogy, and Paleontology at Colorado 
College. 

" I have examined Professor R. S. Tarr's * Economic Geology * with much 
pleasure. It fills a felt want. It will be found not only vexy helpful to students and 
teachers by furnishing the fundamental facts of the science, but it places within easy 
reach of the business man, the capitalist, and the statesman, fresh, reliable, and com- 
plete statistics of our national resources. The numerous tables bringing out in an 
analytic way the comparative resources and productiveness of our country and of 
different states, are a specially convenient and admirable feature. The work is ?u 
interesting demonstration of the great public importance of the. science of geology." 
— James E. Todd, State Geologist, South Dakota. 

" It. is one of those books that is valuable for what it omits, and for the concise 
method of presenting its data. The American engineer has now the ability to acquire 
the latest knowledge of the theories, locations, and statistics of the leading American 
ore bodies at a glance. Were my course one of text-books, I should certainly use it, 
and I have already called the attention of my students to its value as a book of 
reference." — Edward H. Williams, Professor of Mining, Engineering, and 
Geology at Lehigh University. 

"I have taken time for a careful examination of the work; and it gives me 
pleasure to say that it is very satisfactory. Regarded simply as a general treatise 
on Economic Geology, it is a distinct advance on anything that we had before; while 
in its relations to the Economic deposits of this country it is almost a new creation 
and certainly supplies a want long and keenly felt by both teachers and general 
students. Its appearance was most timely in my case, and my class in Economic 
Geology are already using it as a text-book." — William O. Crosby, Assistant 
Prof essor of Structural and Economic Geology at the Massachusetts Institute qf 
Technology. 

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, 

66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK. 



sicai vjeogr 



RALPH STOCKMAN TARR, B.S., F.G.S.A., 

Professor of Dynamic Geology and Physical Geography at Cornell University I 
Author of " Economic Geology of the United States" etc. 

Fifth Edition, Revised, umu Cloth. $ 1.40 net 



,g There is an advanced and modernized phase of physical geography, how- 
ever, which the majority of the committee prefer to designate physiography, 
not because the name is important, but because it emphasizes a special and 
important phase of the subject and of its treatment. The scientific investi- 
gations of the last decade have made very important additions to the physio- 
graphic knowledge and methods of study. These are indeed so radical as 
to be properly regarded, perhaps, as revolutionary." 

"The majority of the Conference wish to impress upon the attention of the 
teachers the fact that there has been developed within the past decade a new 
and most important phase of the subject, and to urge that they hasten to 
acquaint themselves with it and bring it into the work of the school-room 
and of the field." — Report of Geography Conference to the Committee <of Ten, 



The phenomenal rapidity with which Tarr's Elementary Physical Geography 
has been introduced into the best high schools of this country is a fact 
familiar to the school public. The reason should, by this time, be equally 
familiar — the existence of a field of school work in which, until the appearance 
of Tarr's book, there was not a single adequate or modern American text- 
book. That such a field did exist, is simply shown by the paragraphs reprinted 
above. The adoption of the book in such important high schools as those of 
Chicago, and the expressions of approval from representative New England 
schools, will indicate how well the field has been covered. 

Tarr's High School Geology, uniform with Elementary Physical Geo- 
graphy, has attained wide use since its publication in February. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. 

NEW YORK. GHICAGOo SAN FRANCISCO, 



ELEMENTARY GEOLOGY, 



RALPH STOCKMAN TARR, B.S., F.G.S.A., 

Professor of Dynamic Geology and Physical Geography at Cornell Univtrsityi 
Author of "Economic Geology of the United States," etc 



i2mo. Cloth. 486 pp. Price $1.40 net. 



COMMENTS OF THE PRESS. 

" We do not remember to have noted a text-book of geology which 
seems to so go to the heart of the matter." — Phila. Evening Bulletin. 

"The author's style is clear, direct, and attractive. In short, he has 
done his work so well that we do not see how it could have been done 
better." — Journal of Pedagogy. 

" It is far in advance of all geological text-books, whether American 
or European, and it marks an epoch in scientific instruction." 

— The American Geologist. 

u The student is to be envied who can begin the study of this deeply 
interesting, fascinating subject with such an attractive help as this 
text-book." — Wooster Post-Graduate. 

"The Geology is admirably adapted for its purpose — that of a text- 
book." — Brooklyn Standard Union. 

" So admirable an exposition of the science as is found in this book 
must be welcomed both by instructors and students. The arrange- 
ment of facts is excellent, the presentation of theory intelligent and 
progressive, and the style exceedingly attractive." — N. Y. Tribune. 



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